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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

,  ,  ,8t)d .      - 

Accessions  A/oA7  Class  No:- 


WORKS  ON    FOUNDING. 

PUBLISHED   BY 

JOHN   WILEY  &  SONS. 

THE   IRON   FOUNDER. 

By  Simpson  Bolland,  Esq,,  Practical  Iron  Founder.  The  contents  comprise 
Core-Making,  Loam  Moulding,  Dry  Sand  Moulding,  Green  Sand  Moulding, 
with  Miscellaneous  Items,  Recipes,  tables,  etc.,  etc.  400  pp.,  12mo,  cloth,  $2.50 

"THE  IRON   FOUNDER"   SUPPLEMENT. 

A  Complete  Illustrated  Exposition  of  the  Art  of  Casting  in  Iron-.  Comprising 
the  Erection  and  Management  of  Cupolas,  Reverberatory  Furnaces,  Blowers, 
Dams,  Ladles,  etc.;  Mixing  Cast  Iron;  Founding  of  Chilled  Car  Wheels; 
Malleable  Iron  Castings ;  Foundry  Equipments  and  Appliances ;  Gear  Mould- 
ing Machines;  Moulding  Machines;  Burning,  Chilling,  Softening ;  Annealing; 
Pouring  and  Feeding ;  Foundry  Materials ;  Advanced  Moulding;  Measurement 
of  Castings ;  Wrought  Iron,  Steel,  etc. ;  also,  The  Founding  of  Statues ;  The 
Art  of  Taking  Casts ;  Pattern  Modelling ;  Useful  Formulas  and  Tables.  By 
Simpson  Bolland,  Practical  Moulder  and  Manager  of  Foundries;  Author  of 
"The  Iron  Founder,"  etc.  Illustrated  with  over  Two  Hundred  Engravings. 
400  pages 12mo,  cloth,  $2.50 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  FOUNDING  AND  DICTIONARY  OF  FOUNDRY 
TERMS   USED  IN   THE   PRACTICE   OF   MOULDING. 

By  Simpson  Bolland.     12mo,  cloth  (in  preparation). 

AMERICAN   FOUNDRY   PRACTICE. 

Treating  of  Loam,  Dry  Sand  and  Green  Sand  Moulding,  and  Containing  a 
Practical  Treatise  upon  the  Management  of  Cupolas,  and  the  Melting  of  Iron. 
By  Thomas  D.  West,  Practical  Iron  Moulder  and  Foundry  Foreman.  Fully 
Illustrated.  Ninth  edition 12mo,  cloth,  $2.50 

MOULDER'S     TEXT-BOOK,     BEING      PART     H.      OF      AMERICAN 
FOUNDRY   PRACTICE. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Moulding,  discussing  the  question  of  Economy  in 
Casting,  and  the  arrangement  of  a  Foundry  in  regard  to  rapid  work.  Treating 
of  Cupolas,  Methods  of  Firing,  Best  Means  of  Securing  Perfect  and  Sound 
Castings,  etc.,  being  a  continuation  of  Vol.  I.  on  this  subject,  and  dealing  with 
a  class  of  work  requiring  more  skill  and  greater  care.  By  Thomas  D.  West, 
With  numerous  illustrations.  Seventh  edition 12mo,  cloth,  $2.50 

MACHINERY   PATTERN  MAKING. 

A  Discussion  of  Methods,  including  Marking  and  Recording  Patterns,  Printing 
Press,  Slice  Valve  and  Corliss  Cylinders ;  How  to  Cast  Journal-boxes  on  Frames, 
Differential  Pulleys,  Fly-wheels,  Engine  Frames,  Spur,  Bevel  and  Worm 
Gears,  Key  Heads  'for  Motion  Rods,  Elbows  and  Tee  Pipes,  Sweeping  Straight 
and  Conical  Grooved  Winding  Drums,  Large  Sheaves  with  Wrought  and  Cast- 
iron  Arms,  128  full-size  Profiles  of  Gear  Teeth  of  different  pitches  for  Gears  of 
14  to  800  Teeth,  with  a  Table  showing  at  a  glance  the  required  diameter  of  Gear 
for  a  given  number  of  teeth  and  pitch,  Double  Beat,  Governor,  and  Plug 
Valves,  Screw  Propellor,  a  chapter  on  items  for  Pattern  Makers,  besides  a 
number  of  valuable  and  useful  Tables,  etc.,  etc.  417  illustrations.  By  P.  S. 

Dingey,  Foreman  Pattern  Maker  and  Draughtsman 12mo,  cloth,  $2.00 

"A  neat  little  work  that  should  be  not  only  in  the  hands  of  every  pattern  maker,  but  read 
by  every  foundry  foreman  and  proprietor  of  foundries  doing  machinery  work.'" 


THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF  FOUNDING 


AND 

0f 


USED   IN  THE   PRACTICE   OF   MOULDING. 


TOGETHER  WITH  A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TOOLS,  MECHANICAL  APPLI- 
ANCES,    MATERIALS,    AND    METHODS    EMPLOYED   TO   PRODUCE 
CASTINGS    IN    ALL    THE    USEFUL     METALS     AND     THEIR 
ALLOYS,  INCLUDING  BRASS,  BRONZE,   STEEL,  BELL, 
IRON,    AND   TYPE  FOUNDING  ;    WITH  MANY 
ORIGINAL      MIXTURES      OF      RECOG- 
NIZED   VALUE    IN    THE 
MECHANIC  ARTS. 

ALSO 

ALUMINUM,    PLATING,    GILDING,    SILVERING,    DIPPING,   LACQUERING, 
STAINING,    BRONZING,    TINNING,    GALVANIZING,    BRITANNIA- 
WARE,  GERMAN-SILVER,  NICKEL,  SOLDERING,  BRAZ- 
ING,   ORES,    SMELTING,    REFINING, 
ASSAYING,  ETC. 


BY 

SIMPSON    HOLLAND, 

Practical  Moulder  and  Manager  of  Foundries ; 
Author  of  "The  Iron  Founder,"  ''•The  Iron  Founder  Supplement,"  etc. 


FIRST    EDITION. 

FIRST   THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK : 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS, 

53  EAST  TENTH  STREET. 

1894. 


Copyright,  1894, 

BY 

SIMPSON  BOLLAND. 


PEEPACE. 


THE  ordinary  dictionaries  and  encyclopaedias  of  general 
literature,  and  even  those  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  contain 
but  few  notices  of  foundry  terms;  and  where  these  do 
occur,  the  explanations  are  in  many  instances  very  meagre, 
and  often  wide  of  the  mark,  showing  either  a  limited 
knowledge  of  the  subjects  treated  or  a  want  of  appreciation 
of  their  importance  to  the  practical  moulder,  as  well  as  to 
others  who  need  information  on  such  topics. 

If  this  work  helps  to  supply  this  deficiency  the  author 
will  be  well  rewarded.  Opportunity  has  been  taken 
throughout  its  pages  to  introduce  words  which,  until 
lately,  had  apparently  no  connection  with  fche  founder's 
art,  and  in  the  explanation  of  which  special  care  has  been 
observed  to  explain  their  meaning  by  such  methods  of 
illustration  as  will  bring  them  into  direct  association  with 
the  whole  science  of  founding  particularly. 

It  is  with  this  view  that  names  of  minerals,  metals, 
and  chemicals  have  been  inserted,  the  author  believing 
that,  remote  as  some  of  them  may  appear,  they  all  have 
a  bearing,  direct  or  indirect,  upon  the  general  business  of 
founding  at  this  day,  and  should  receive  at  least  as  much 
attention  as  has  been  accorded  them. 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

The  treatment  of  brass  founding,  etc.,  is  a  reflex  of  the 
author's*  life-experience  largely;  and' whenever  it  has  been 
thought  proper  to  consult  the  chemist,  metallurgist,  or 
mechanical  engineer,  the  best  authorities  on  these  subjects 
have  been  chosen. 

SIMPSON  BOLLAND. 

NEW  YORK,  May,  1894. 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  FOUNDING. 


A.  Agate. 

Acetate. — A  salt  formed  by  the  union  of  acetic  acid 
with  a  salifiable  base  ;  as,  the  acetate  of  copper,  the  acetate 
of  silver,  etc. 

Acetic  Acid. — If  vinous  fermentation  is  not  checked 
in  due  time,  it  passes  at  once  to  the  stage  of  acetous  fer- 
mentation, and  the  liquid  becomes  sour  ;  oxygen  is  ab- 
sorbed, and  the  alcohol  converted  into  vinegar,  or  acetic 
acid.  See  PITCH. 

Adhesion. — This  is  a  force  which  unites  dissimilar 
bodies,  and  is  exerted  between  substances  of  all  kinds. 
The  sticking  of  blackening  to  mould-surfaces,  loam  to 
bricks,  glue  to  wood,  etc.,  are  well-known  examples  of 
adhesive  force.  See  AGGLUTINATION. 

Agate. — This  stone  is  an  aggregate  of  siliceous  sub- 
stances, the  character  and  color  of  which  is  maintained  in 
the  mass.  Agate  is  composed  of  chalcedony,  quartz,  ame- 
thyst, carnelian,  jasper,  common  opal,  etc.,  with  all  their 
varying  colors.  Its  hardness  and  beauty  have  brought  it 
into  great  demand  both  for  useful  and  ornamental  pur- 
poses. See  STONE  ;  PRECIOUS  STONES. 


Agglutination.  2  Air. 

Agglutination, — The  act  of  uniting,  by  means  of 
some  viscous  substance,  as  glue,  molasses,  etc.,  which  causes 
an  adhesion  or  sticking  together  of  parts  or  particles 
which  of  themselves  have  no  adhesiveness.  Silica-sand 
with  molasses  ;  the  various  free-sands  for  cores  with  glue, 
flour,  rosin,  etc.,  are  familiar  examples  of  agglutinants,  and 
their  usefulness  in  foundry  practice.  See  CORE-SAND  ; 
FLOUR  ;  GLUE. 

Air. — The  thin,  gaseous  medium  which  surrounds  the 
earth.  Air,  like  all  other  forms  of  matter,  has  weight,  as 
may  be  proved  by  exhausting  the  air  from  a  light  flask 
and,  after  counterpoising  at  the  balance,  allowing  the  air 
to  enter,  when  it  will  at  once  descend.  One  hundred 
cubic  inchs  of  air  weighs  about  30^  grains,  or  828  times 
lighter  than  water.  Particles  of  air,  like  other  elastic 
fluids,  mutually  repel  each  other,  and  would  therefore 
spread  out  into  space,  and  become  exceedingly  rare  if  it 
were  not  for  the  attraction  of  the  earth.  Consequently 
about  50  miles  is  as  far  as  it  extends  from  the  surface,  and 
it  thus  obtains  weight.  This  weight,  or  pressure  of  the 
air  at  sea-level  is  15  pounds  on  every  square  inch,  which  is 
called  an  atmosphere;  60  pounds  would  be  four  atmos- 
pheres, etc. 

Several  gases  enter  into  the  mixture  of  atmospheric  air  ; 
oxygen  and  nitrogen  constituting  its  bulk,  however,  with 
a  small  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor,  etc. 
Its  average  composition  by  volume  is  oxygen  20.81,  and 
nitrogen  79.19  in  10,000  parts;  or,  by  weight,  oxygen 
23.01,  and  nitrogen  76.99. 

The  atmosphere  is  a  mechanical  mixture,  not  a  chemi- 
cal compound ;  it  constituents  being  mixed  or  diffused 
throughout  each  other.  A  caudle  will  burn  in  an  artificial 
mixture  of  nitrogen  4,  oxygen  1,  and  animals  will  breathe 
in  it,  as  in  the  atmosphere.  See  THERMOMETER. 


Air  pump  3  Alcohol. 

As  a  technical  term  in  the  foundry,  air  means  any  or  all 
of  the  gases  that  generate  during  the  processes  of  casting, 
which,  if  not  suitably  disposed  of  by  venting,  become  a 
source  of  annoyance  and  danger  to  the  moulder.  For 
more  definite  information  and  instruction  regarding  the 
latter,  see  VENTING. 

Air-pump. — A  pneumatic  machine  for  exhausting  air 
from  a  tight  vessel,  and  thereby  produce  what  is  called  a 
vacuum.  See  VACUUM. 

Air-furnace.— A  furnace  with  a  natural  draft.  See 
WIND-FURNACE. 

Albata. — An  English  name  for  German  silver.  See 
GERMAN  SILVER. 

Albumen. — This  word  means  the  white  of  an  egg. 
It  is  found  as  an  organic  compound  in  both  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  Albumen  forms  the  starting-point 
of  all  animal  tissue,  and  may  be  considered  the  raw  mate- 
rial of  fibrin,  the  substance  which  forms  the  basis  or  fibre 
of  muscular  tissue.  Its  composition  is:  carbon  52.8,  oxy- 
gen 23.8,  hydrogen  7.5,  nitrogen  15.7.  The  most  im- 
portant property  of  albumen  is  that  of  its  coagulating  or 
forming  a  white  solid  substance  by  the  application  of  a 
gentle  heat.  Hence  its  use  for  many  purposes  in  the  arts 
and  manufactures.  See  AGGLUTINATION. 

Alcohol.— The  purely  spirituous  parts  of  liquors 
which  have  undergone  vinous  fermentation.  Alcohol 
mixes  with  water  in  any  proportion,  giving  out  heat  by 
the  mixture;  a  mutual  penetration  of  the  parts  takes  place, 
so  that  the  bulk  of  the  two  fluids  when  mixed  is  less  than 
when  separate.  All  the  alkalies  when  pure,  several  of  the 
neutral  earths  and  metallic  salts,  sulphur  in  vapor,  phos- 


Alkali.  Allowance. 

phorous,  the  essential  oils,  resins,  gum-resins,  wax,  sper- 
maceti, biliary  calculi,  etc.,  are,  in  different  proportions, 
soluble  in  alcohol.  The  substances  which  are  insoluble  in 
alcohol  are  the  alkaline  carbonates;  all  the  sulphates;  some 
of  the  nitrates  and  muriates,  metals;  metallic  oxides,  and 
metallic  acids ;  all  the  pure  earths;  the  fixed  oils,  unless 
when  united  to  alkalies,  or  converted  into  drying  oils  by 
metallic  oxides;  muscular  fibre;  the  coagulum  of  blood;  and 
albumen.  Alcohol  is  highly  combustible,  producing  intense 
heat  without  smoke,  and  for  this  reason  is  well  adapted  to 
burn  in  lamps  for  chemical  and  other  uses.  See  FUEL. 

Alkali. — Alkalies  in  their  pure  state  possess  the  fol- 
lowing general  properties  ;  to  the  taste  they  are  caustic 
and  acrid;  they  dissolve  animal  matter,  and  form  a  sapo- 
naceous compound  with  oils  or  fat;  they  combine  with 
acids  in  definite  proportions,  but  the  respective  properties 
of  each  are  destroyed,  and  a  neutral  salt  is  the  result.  It 
is  on  this  account  that  most  metals  are  precipitated  from 
their  acid  solutions  by  the  introduction  of  an  alkali.  The 
most  important  alkalies  are  potash,  ammonia,  and  soda — 
ammonia  being  soluble,  while  potash  and  soda  are  termed 
fixed  alkalies.  See  PEECIPITATIOK. 

Allowance. — A  foundry  phrase,  of  general  applica- 
tion. For  example:  some  portion  of  a  mould  or  core  is 
scraped  or  filed  away  to  prevent  actual  contact  of  two  fri- 
able surfaces  when  closing  a  mould  is  called  allowance,  or 
clearance.  A  small  proportion  of  zinc,  over  and  above  the 
recognized  formula,  to  compensate  for  what .  is  lost  by 
volatilization  during  the  process  of  mixing,  is  allowance. 
In  fact,  anything  performed  with  the  view  of  minimizing 
the  possibilities  of  destroying  the  result  of  his  labor,  is 
recognized  by  the  moulder  as  making  allowance  for  such 
contingencies. 


Alloys.  5  Alloys. 

Alloys. — A  combination  or  mixture  of  two  or  more 
metals.  Metals  combine  with  metals  to  form  alloys,  and 
each  compound  may  be  looked  upon,  for  many  purposes,  as 
{i  new  metal.  Alloys  are  always  more  fusible  than  the  most 
infusible  metal  of  which  they  are  composed.  A  metal  of 
low  fusibility,  when  melted  in  contact  with  one  of  high 
fusibility,  causes  the  latter  also  to  melt,  thus  acting  as  a 
flux.  This  principle  is  employed  in  soldering,  or  the  join- 
ing of  two  metals  by  means  of  a  third.  See  SOLDERING. 

In  fact,  no  alloy  composed  of  two  metals,  as  copper  and 
zinc,  or  copper  and  tin,  either  files  or  turns  with  the  same 
facility  as  when  a  third  metal  is  added  to  the  alloy  in  suit- 
able proportions.  Lead  added  to  copper  and  zinc,  and  zinc 
to  copper  and  tin,  will  effect  this  purpose. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  making  alloys, 
the  more  infusible  metals  should  be  melted  first;  and  in 
order  that  the  admixture  should  be  perfect,  mechanical 
agitation  must  be  effected  by  constant  stirring  with  an  in- 
fusible rod,  or  repeated  pouring  from  one  ladle  or  crucible 
to  another.  The  surface  of  the  metal  should  also  be  care- 
fully protected  while  in  a  fluid  state  from  the  oxidizing 
influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Ordinarily,  resin,  pitch,  or 
wax  will  answer  this  purpose  for  all  alloys  having  a  low 
fusing-point;  but  for  such  as  have  a  high  fusing- point, 
borax,  pounded  glass,  charcoal,  or  salt  will  answer.  See 
FLUX. 

Not  many  of  the  metals  may  be  used  by  the  founder 
without  some  alloy,  and  the  following  represent  nearly 
all  that  are  employed  alone,  viz.,  iron,  copper,  lead,  tin, 
zinc,  gold,  silver,  mercury,  platinum,  aluminum.  Some 
are  entirely  too  brittle  to  be  used  alone,  but  may  be  used 
for  imparting  hardness  to  other  metals.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  bismuth,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc.  But  even 
copper  may  not  be  employed  alone  for  castings,  as  such 
castings  are  invariably  unsound,  and  are  difficult  to  file  or 


Alum.  6  Alum. 

machine;  yet  a  suitable  proportion  of  zinc  alloyed  with  it 
renders  it  not  only  sound  in  the  casting,  but  capable  of 
being  either  machined,  rolled,  or  hammered,  and  which 
constitutes,  according  to  the  amount  of  zinc  used,  many 
different  kinds  of  the  most  useful  alloy  known,  viz.,  brass. 
See  BRASS. 

Some  of  the  changes  produced  by  alloying  are  of  great 
importance  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  as  many  of  the 
alloys  produced  are  more  valuable  on  account  of  their 
newly-acquired  properties  than  any  of  the  simple  metals 
which  enter  into  the  composition. 

Strange  as  it  may  appear,  a  quarter  of  a  grain  of  lead 
will  render  an  ounce  of  gold  perfectly  brittle,  although 
neither  of  the  metals  composing  the  alloy  are  brittle  ones. 

Some  metals  which  will  not  combine  together  immedi- 
ately may  be  united  by  the  intervention  of  a  third  fusible 
alloy.  Thus,  mercury  will  not  combine  directly  with  iron, 
but  if  tin  or  zinc  be  first  added  to  the  iron,  an  amalgam 
may  be  formed  of  it  with  mercury  (see  MERCURY;  AMAL- 
GAM). When  mercury  is  united  with  another  metal  the 
compound  is  called  an  amalgam. 

One  remarkable  feature  in  this  connection  is  that  alloys 
are,  as  a  rule,  more  easily  oxidized  than  their  component 
metals.  For  example,  it  only  requires  to  heat  an  alloy  of 
tin  and  lead  to  redness,  when  it  will  at  once  unite  with  the 
oxygen,  or  take  fire  and  burn.  (All  the  alloys  and  metals 
of  importance  will  be  explained  under  their  several  names.) 
See  FLUID  ALLOY;  FUSIBLE  ALLOY. 

Alum,  or  sulphate  of  alumina  and  potash,  is  a  triple 
salt  of  great  importance  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 
Sometimes  it  is  found  native,  but  it  is  chiefly  manufactured 
artificially  from  alum -slate.  A  large  quantity  is  prepared 
in  this  country  by  treating  alumina  or  clay  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months  adding  potash. 


Aluminum.  •  Aluminum. 

The  whole  is  then  leached  and  the  alum  separated  from  the 
solution  by  crystallization.  It  is  of  great  importance  in  dye- 
ing, in  the  manufacture  of  leather,  and  in  calico-printing. 
Alum  is  soluble  in  16  parts  of  water  at  60°,  and  in  three- 
fourths  of  its  weight  of  boiling  water;  its  composition  is: 
sulphate  of  alumina  36.85,  sulphate  of  potash  18.15,  water 
45.00. 

Aluminum. — A  bluish-white  metal  of  remarkable 
brightness,  its  specific  gravity  being  only  a  quarter  that  of 
silver  (2.56),  or  about  the  same  as  porcelain.  Next  to  oxy- 
gen and  silicon,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  abundant  element 
upon  the  earth's  surface,  and  is  more  abundant  than  any 
other  metal,  as  it  is  supposed  to  constitute  one  twelfth  of 
the  solid  crust  of  the  earth.  Most  rocks  and  soils  hold  enor- 
mous quantities  of  this  metal  in  combination  with  oxygen 
and  silicon,  and  slate,  marl,  feldspar,  clay,  and  many 
other  common  minerals  contain  it  in  large  proportions. 

Notwithstanding  its  abundance,  it  cannot  be  applied  to 
the  many  uses  for  which  it  is  so  well  suited,  because  as  yet 
the  methods  for  obtaining  it  are  very  costly,  although 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  of  late  in  devising 
cheaper  means  to  this  end.  The  metal  is  malleable,  duc- 
tile, and  tenacious,  and  may  be  beaten  into  thin  sheets,  and 
drawn  into  fine  wire,  after  the  manner  of  silver.  Ham- 
mering in  the  cold  makes  it  hard,  like  soft  iron;  fusing 
softens  it  again.  Hammering  increases  its  specific  gravity 
from  2.56  to  2.67.  It  melts  at  red  heat,  but  does  not 
oxidize  at  high  temperatures;  it  is  not  acted  upon  by 
chemicals  that  would  blacken  silver,  and  because  of  this 
quality  it  preserves  its  lustre  better  than  the  latter  metal, 
which  is  usually  attacked  by  the  sulphur  contained  in 
some  foods,  forming  with  the  silver  a  dark  composition. 
Nitric  acid,  even  when  concentrated,  fails  to  touch  it,  and 
it  is  not  soluble  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Concentrated 


Aluminum.  8  Aluminum. 

hydrochloric  acid  dissolves  it  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 
The  metal  is  also  dissolved  with  solutions  of  caustic  potash 
or  soda,  which  forms  aluminate  of  potash  or  soda,  giving 
off  hydrogen. 

Aluminum  is  employed  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  delicate  apparatus,  ornamental  articles,  etc.,  but  it  is  as 
yet  only  valuable  as  an  alloy  with  other  metals,  such  as 
steel,  cast-iron,  copper,  nickel,  and  some  others,  the  quality 
of  which  is  very  perceptibly  improved  by  certain  additions 
of  aluminum.  The  property  of  this  metal,  when  combined 
with  steel,  iron,  and  copper,  is  to  increase  their  tensile 
strength  and  resistance  to  oxidation. 

The  fluidity  of  cast-iron  is  much  improved  by  this  metal, 
and  it  is  claimed  that  the  castings  are  much  more  sound 
and  cleaner  when  alloyed  with  a  surprisingly  small  amount 
of  aluminum. 

Alloyed  with  brass  or  copper,  it  improves  equally  tensile 
strength,  color,  and  durability,  and  gives  a  dense  solid 
casting  free  from  porosity.  To  effect  the  above  result  it  is 
only  necessary  to  flux  with  from  \  to  1  per  cent  of  alu- 
minum. 

The  true  bronze — aluminum  10,  copper  90 — is  a  some- 
what brittle,  gold-colored  alloy  at  the  first  melting,  but  it 
increases  in  tenacity  and  strength  with  successive  meltings, 
until  at  a  dull  red  heat  it  may  be  forged  and  hammered 
until  it  has  become  cold,  without  presenting  any  cracks  at 
the  edges. 

One  of  the  qualities  possessed  by  aluminum  bronze  is 
that  it  may  be  made  softer  and  more  ductile  by  plunging 
into  cold  water  while  hot.  The  tensile  strength  of  good 
bronze  is  about  90,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

In  making  this  bronze  in  crucibles,  use  a  layer  of  char- 
coal over  the  copper,  but  no  flux.  When  the  copper  has 
melted,  push  the  aluminum  down  into  the  molten  copper 
before  lifting  out  the  crucible,  after  which  it  may  be 


Aluminum.  0  Aluminum. 

skimmed  clean  and  poured.  No  time  should  be  lost  in 
handling  this  alloy  after  it  has  been  well  stirred  and  freed 
from  slag. 

Small  proportions  of  gold,  silver,  tin,  or  zinc  increases 
the  hardness,  but  does  not  materially  affect  the  ductility  of 
aluminum.  Three  per  cent  of  zinc  improves  it;  7  per 
cent  of  tin  impairs  its  lustre,  and  with  lead,  mercury,  and 
antimony  it  will  not  combine.  Articles  made  in  this  metal 
may  be  freed  from  the  bluish  tint,  and  made  to  appeal- 
like  frosted  silver  by  immersing  in  a  hot  solution  of  pot- 
ash. Soldering  aluminum  has  so  far  proven  a  difficult 
task;  most  solders  will  not  stick  to  the  surface  of  alu- 
minum and  owing  to  its  high  heat  conductivity,  the  heat  is 
very  rapidly  drawn  away  from  any  of  the  molten  solders, 
causing  them  to  freeze  before  flowing  sufficiently.  These 
difficulties  have  been  largely  overcome  by  having  the 
aluminum  to  be  soldered  hot,  the  surfaces  especially 
cleaned,  and  with  very  hot  soldering  bits  or  careful  work 
with  the  blow  pipe,  and  with  special  alloys  for  solders  and 
special  fluxes.  Several  such  methods  are  successfully  used. 
Soldering  bits  of  nickel  are  better  than  copper  ones,  and 
especially  good  work  has  been  done  with  those  kept  hot 
by  a  gasolene  torch  or  electric  appliance. 

Due  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  aluminum  and  its  com- 
mercial impurities,  ordinary  hard  solder  (composed  of 
silver  and  tin),  soft  solder  (composed  of  lead  and  zinc), 
or  any  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  solder,  do  not  "  stick  "  to 
the  metal. 

The  Pittsburgh  Eeduction  Company  have  a  process  pro- 
tected by  letters-patent  for  treating  aluminum  so  that 
certain  forms  of  solder  will  work  satisfactorily  with  it. 

Due  to  the  high  heat  conductivity  of  aluminum,  the 
heat  from  the  molten  solder  is  conducted  away  from  it  so 
rapidly  that  it  will  not  "flow  under  "as  satisfactorily  as 
could  be  desired.  The  above-mentioned  company  have 


Aluminum.  10  Aluminum. 

arrangements  for  overcoming  this  difficulty  and  soldering 
satisfactorily. 

The  quality  of  ordinary  bronze,  or  gun-metal  (copper 
90,  tin  10),  is  much  improved  by  an  addition  of  about  2 
per  cent  aluminum. 

All  anti-friction  metals,  especially  babbitt-metal,  are  im- 
proved by  the  addition  of  from  J  to  J  of  1  per  cent 
aluminum. 

Steel  is  rendered  more  fluid  for  casting  with  by  a  small 
percentage  of  aluminum  added  to  each  ladleful  of  metal 
before  pouring.  From  f  to  1  pound  to  a  ton  of  steel  is 
usually  sufficient  for  this  purpose;  it  diffuses  through  the 
mass  without  stirring,  makes  sounder  castings  and  freer 
from  honeycomb. 

Its  effect  upon  gray  cast  iron  is  not  very  pronounced, 
but  white  iron  containing  combined  carbon  4.80,  and  -no 
graphite,  is  changed  to  a  gray  iron  containing  graphitic 
carbon  3.45,  combined  carbon  0.93,  by  the  addition  of 
about  3.20  per  cent  of  aluminum,  thus  causing  an  entire 
change  from  white  iron  to  gray. 

Most  type-metal  mixtures  are  appreciably  improved  by 
a  further  alloy  of  from  5  to  10  per  cent  aluminum,  the 
edges  of  the  type  being  made  harder  arid  metal  more  dur- 
able. 

With  nearly  all  brass  mixtures  it  imparts  a  higher  de- 
gree of  homogeneity,  and  lessens  the  tendency  to  corro- 
sion. 

Zinc  galvanizing  is  made  more  easy  of  accomplishment, 
and  with  improved  results,  by  adding  a  slight  proportion 
of  aluminum  to  the  zinc,  a  thinner  and  more  tenacious 
coating  being  made  possible  by  this  means. 

Besides  the  numerous  aluminum  alloys  given  elsewhere, 
there  are  many  new  compositions  which  are  claiming  con- 
siderable attention,  in  which  aluminum  enters  as  a  princi- 
pal ingredient,  some  of  which  are  as  follows  : 


Aluminum.  11  Aluminum. 

Bourbounz-metal  contains  aluminum  85.74,  tin  12.94, 
silicon  1.32. 

Nickel-aluminum  contains  aluminum  8,  nickel  20. 

Metalline  contains  aluminum  25,  copper  30,  cobalt  35, 
iron  10. 

Rosine,  for  jewelry,  contains  aluminum  30,  nickel  40, 
tin  20,  silver  10. 

Cobalt-bronze  contains  aluminum  10,  copper  40,  cobalt 
50.  See  ALUMINUM  ALLOYS;  ALUMINUM-BRONZE  ALLOYS. 

The  impurities  most  commonly  found  in  aluminum  are 
silicon  and  iron,  and  it  may  be  said  of  the  metal  made  by 
the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company  that  these  two  impuri- 
ties are  the  only  ones  found.  Silicon  in  aluminum  exists 
in  two  forms,  one  seemingly  combined  with  aluminum  as 
combined  carbon  exists  in  pig-iron,  and  the  other  as  an 
allotropic  graphitoidal  modification. 

For  many  purposes  the  pure  aluminum  cannot  be  so  ad- 
vantageously used  as  that  containing  3$  or  4$  of  impuri- 
ties, as  the  pure  aluminum  is  soft  and  not  so  strong  as  the 
less  pure.  It  is  only  where  extreme  malleability,  ductility, 
sonorousness,  and  non-corrodibility  are  required,  that  the 
purest  metal  should  be  used. 

The  purity  of  commercial  aluminum  varies  from  94$  to 
99.75$.  The  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company  sells  its  com- 
mercial aluminum  in  three  grades. 

The  No.  1  grade  of  aluminuin  has  an  analysis  approxi- 
mately as  follows  : 

~>jorsrc*3p 

Silicon . . .  | flfl.J  ^.5 lUl-T-Y!  °'50^ 

Iron \  />•  •  •  -  -  oar-  •  •  x  \vJ  °-25#- 

Aluminum ^^^J  »  f^rvV-^&V*^*   99.25$. 

They  always  have,  however,  in  stock  metal  still  purer 
than  this;  some  running  as  high  as  99.90$  pure,  which  is 
sold  at  an  added  price  for  special  uses. 


Aluminum.  12  Aluminum. 

The  No.  2  grade  ordinarily  runs  quite  uniform  in  com- 
position, and  has  an  analysis  approximately  as  follows  : 

Silicon 3$. 

Iron \%. 

Aluminum 96$. 

This  metal,  however,  is  not  guaranteed  to  be  over  94$ 
pure. 

Sound  ingots  of  the  No.  1  grade  metal,  suitable  for  roll- 
ing, are  kept  in  stock  of  the  following  sizes  : 

12  inches  x  18  inches  x  If  inch. 
12      "       x  18J-     "      x  11     " 
11J    "       x  16±     "       x  1       " 
12^    "       x     6       "       x    }     " 
5£    "       x    2       "       x    \     " 

Aluminum  for  remelting  is  kept  in  stock  of  the  various 
grades  of  metal,  in  what  are  called  "  waffle"  ingots.  They 
are  square  placques,  three  inches  on  a  side  and  of  about  J 
inch  thickness,  and  weigh  about  one  half  pound  each. 
They  are  connected  together  with  thin  webs. 

A  sheet  of  aluminum  twelve  inches  square  and  one  inch 
thick  weighs  14.12  pounds;  a  bar  of  aluminum  one  inch 
square  and  12  inches  long  weighs  1.176  pounds;  a  bar  of 
aluminum  one  inch  in  diameter  and  12  inches  long  weighs 
0.918  pounds. 

Weight. — The  weight  per  cubic  inch  of  cast  aluminum 
is  .092  lb.;  of  rolled  aluminum,  .098  Ib. 

The  weight  per  cu.  ft.  of  cast  aluminum  is  .158.989  Ibs. 
The  weight  per  cu.  ft.  of  rolled  aluminum  is.  169.510  Ibs. 
The  weight  per  cu.  ft.  of  wrought  iron  is.  .  .480.000  Ibs. 
The  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  soft  steel  is. . .  .490.450  Ibs. 

The  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  brass  is 524.160  Ibs. 

The  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  copper  is 558.125  Ibs. 


Aluminum.  13  Aluminum. 

The  weight  of  a  given  bulk  of  cast  aluminum  being  1, 
soft  steel  or  iron  is  3.0  times  as  heavy;  copper  is  3.6  times 
as  heavy;  nickel,  3.5  times  as  heavy;  silver,  4  times  as 
heavy;  lead,  4.8  times  as  heavy  ;  gold,  7.7  times  as  heavy, 
and  platinum  8.6  times  as  heavy. 

Strength. — The  tensile,  crashing  and  transverse  tests  of 
aluminum  vary  very  considerably  with  different  conditions 
of  hardness,  due  to  cold  working  ;  also  by  the  amount  of 
work  that  has  been  put  upon  the  metal,  the  character  of 
the  section,  etc.  Cast  aluminum  has  about  an  equal 
strength  to  cast  iron  in  tension,  but  under  compression  is 
comparatively  weak.  The  following  is  a  table  giving  the 
average  results  of  many  tests  of  aluminum  of  98.5  $ 
purity  : 


Elastic  limit  per  sq.  in.  in  tension  (castings) 8,500 

"  "  "  "        (sheet)    12,500  to  25,000 

"  "  "        (wire)     16,000  to  30,000 

"  "  "  "        (bars)     14,000  to  25,000 

Ultimate  strength  per  sq.  in.  "        (castings) 18,000 

"  "  "       "        (sheet)  24,000  to  50,000 

"  "  "       «        (wire)    30,000  to  65,000 

"  "  "       "        (bars)     28,000  to  45,000 

Per  cent  of  reduction  of  area  in  tension  (castings) 15 

"  "         (sheet) . .   20  to  30 

"  "  "  "        (wire)  . .   40  to  60 

"  «  "  "        (bars) ...  30  to  40 

Elastic  limit  per  square  inch  under  compression  in 
cylinders,  with  length  twice  the  diameter 3,500 

Ultimate  strength  per  square  inch  under  compres- 
sion in  cylinders,  with  length  twice  the  diameter.  12,000 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  cast  aluminum  is  about 
11,000,000. 


Aluminum. 


Aluminum. 


Aluminum  in  castings  can  readily  be  strained  to  the 
unit  stress  of  1500  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch  in  compression,  and 
to  5000  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch  in  tension.  It  is  rather  an  open 
metal  in  its  texture;  and  for  cylinders,  to  stand  pressure, 
an  increase  in  thickness  over  the  ordinary  formulas  should 
be  given  to  allow  for  its  porosity. 

Under  transverse  tests,  pure  aluminum  is  not  very  rigid, 
although  the  metal  will  bend  nearly  double  before  break- 
ing, while  cast  iron  will  crack  before  the  deflection  has  be- 
come at  all  large. 

The  texture  and  strength  of  aluminum  are  greatly 
improved  by  subjecting  the  ingots  to  forging  or  pressing 
at  a  temperature  of  about  600°  Fahrenheit. 

Taking  the  tensile  strength  of  aluminum  in  relation  to 
its  weight,  it  is  as  strong  as  steel  of  80,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Comparative  results  in  this  way  are  tabulated 
below  as  taken  from  Richards'  work  on  "aluminum." 


Weight  of  1 
Cubic  Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Tensile 
Strength   per 
Square  Inch. 

Length  of  a 
Bar  able  to 
Support  its 
own  Weight 
in  Feet. 

444 
525 

480 
490 
168 

16,500 
36,000 
50,000 
78,000 
26,800 

5,351 
9,893 
15,000 
23,040 
23,040 

"Wrou*rb.t  iron       

ROLLED  COPPER  has  a  specific  gravity  of  8.93.  One 
cubic  foot  weighs  558^%  M)s.  ^lie  square  foot  of  one 
inch  thick  weighs  46^^  Ibs. 

ROLLED  ALUMINUM  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.72. 
One  cubic  foot  weighs  169T67VV  Ibs.  One  square  foot  of 
one  inch  thick  weighs  14TV2/o  IDS-  Rolled  copper  is  3. 283 
times  heavier  than  similar  sections  of  rolled  aluminum. 


Aluminum. 


15 


Aluminum. 


COMPARATIVE  WEIGHT  OF  METALS. 


Metals. 

Weights  per 
Square  Foot 
1  Inch  Thick. 

Approximate  Percentage. 

Heavier  than 
Iron. 

Lighter  than 
Iron. 

Iron           rolled     

40.000 
40.833 
14  126 
4368 
46  51 
100.8 
5980 
43.2 
54.75 
38. 
37.6 

2  per  ct. 

7  per  ct. 
13       " 
150 
50 

7 
361     " 

62.91  per  ct. 

5  per  ct. 

6       " 

Steel                    

Aluminum                       .... 

Kniss                    .       .  .  • 

Copper                

Gold                          

Lefid                    

Nickel                   

Silver            '      

Tin,                      

Zinc, 

TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  SOME  ALUMINUM  BRASS 
ALLOYS. 


Aluminum. 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Tensile  Strength 
per  Square  Inch. 
Lbs. 

1.00 

57.00 

42.00 

68,600 

1.15 

55.80 

43.00 

70,200 

1.25 

70.00 

28.00 

36,900 

1.50 

78.00 

27.50 

42,300 

1.50 

77.50 

21.00 

33,417 

2.00 

70.00 

28.00 

52,800 

2.00 

70.00 

28.00 

52,000 

2.50 

68.00 

30.00 

65400 

3.00 

67.00 

30.00 

68,600 

3.30 

68.00 

33.30 

86,700 

3.:50 

63.30 

33.30 

77,400 

a.  30 

63.30 

33.30 

92,500 

3.30 

63.30 

33.30 

90,000 

5.80 

67.40 

26.80 

96,900 

Aluminum. 


16 


Aluminum  Alloys 


TABLE  SHOWING  WEIGHT  IN  POUNDS   OF  SHEET 
AND  BAR  ALUMINUM  AND  BRASS. 

Rolled  brass  is  3.021  times  heavier  than  rolled  aluminum. 
Rolled  steel  is  2. 890  times  heavier  than  rolled  aluminum. 


Sheets 

Square  Bars 

Round  Bars 

Thickness 
or  Diam- 

per 
Square  Foot. 

One  Foot 
Long. 

One  Foot 
Long. 

eter  in 

Inches. 

Alum'um. 

Brass. 

Steel. 

Alum'um. 

Brass. 

Steel. 

Alum'um. 

Brass. 

Steel. 

1-16 

.884 

2.7 

2.556 

.00450 

.015 

.013 

.00346 

.Otl 

.010 

1-8 

1.769 

5.41 

5  112 

.01834 

.055 

.053 

.01453 

.045 

.042 

3-16 

2.647 

8.12 

7.65 

.04118 

.125 

.119 

.03253 

.1 

.OM 

1-4 

3.5:30 

10.76 

10.20 

.073364 

.255 

.212 

.05780 

.175 

.167 

5-16 

4.413 

13.48 

12.75 

.1152 

.350 

.333 

.09032 

.275 

.261 

3-8 

5.294 

16.25 

15.30 

.1654 

.51 

.478 

.12970 

.395 

.375 

7-16 

6.177 

19. 

17.85 

.2253 

.69 

.651 

.1768 

.54 

.511 

1-2 

'   7.060 

21.65 

20.40 

.2941 

.905 

.850 

.2308 

.71 

.0(57 

9-16 

7.942 

24.3 

22.95 

.3723 

1.15 

1.076 

.2924 

.9 

.§45 

5-8 

8.824 

27.12 

25.50 

.4595 

1.4 

1.328 

.3609 

1.1 

1  043 

11-16 

9.706 

29.77 

28.05 

.5564 

1.72 

1.608 

.4367 

1.35 

1  .26'i 

3-4 

10.590 

32.46 

30.60 

.6620 

2.05 

1.913 

.5198 

1.55 

1.502 

13-16 

11.470 

35.18 

33.15 

.7768 

2.4 

2.245 

.6104 

1.85 

1  703 

7-8 

12.35 

37.85 

35  70 

.9008 

2.75 

2.603 

.7074 

2.15 

2.044 

15-16 

13  23 

40.55 

38.25 

1.034 

3.15 

2.989 

.8122 

2.48 

2.347 

14.12 

43.29 

40.80 

1.176 

3.65 

3.400 

.924 

2.85 

2.670 

.1-16 

15.00 

45.95 

43.35 

1.328 

4.08 

3.838 

1.043 

3.20 

3.014 

.1-8 

15.88 

48.69 

45.90 

1.488 

4.55 

4.303 

1.169 

3.57 

3.379 

.3-16 

16.76 

51.4 

48.45 

1.659 

5.08 

4.795 

1.303 

3.97 

3.766 

.1-4 

17  64 

54.18 

51.00 

1.838 

5.65 

5.312 

1.444 

4.41 

4  173 

.5-16 

18.52 

56.85 

53.55 

2.027 

6.22 

7  857 

1.592 

4.86 

4.(idO 

.3-8 

19.41 

59.55 

56.10 

2.224 

6.81 

6.428 

1.747 

5.35 

5.0  9 

.7-16 

20.30 

62.25 

58.65 

2  431 

7.45 

7.026 

1.909 

5.85 

5.518 

.1-2 

21.18 

65. 

61.20 

2.647 

8.13 

7.650 

2.079 

6.37 

15.008 

.9-16 

22.06 

67.75 

63.75 

2.872 

8.83 

R.301 

2.256 

6.92 

r,  r>','o 

.5-8 

22  94 

70.35 

66.30 

3.107 

9.55 

8.978 

2.440 

7.48 

7.051 

.11-16 

23.82 

73. 

68.85 

3.350 

10.27 

9.682 

2.631 

8.05 

7.1504 

.3^ 

24.70 

75.86 

71.40 

3.602 

11. 

10.41 

2.830 

8.  (55 

8.  178 

13-16 

25.58 

78.55 

73.95 

3.865 

11  82 

11.17 

3.036 

9.29 

8  773 

1.7-8 

26.46 

81.25 

76.50 

4.135 

12.68 

11.95 

3.249 

9.95 

9.388 

1.15-16 

27  43 

84. 

79  05 

4.415 

13.5 

12.76 

3.407 

10.58 

10.02 

2 

28.22 

86.76 

81.60 

4.706 

14.35 

13.60 

3.696 

11.25 

10.68 

Aluminum  Alloys. — The  following  alloys  com  prise 
most  of  those  which  are  in  common  use.  Such  alloys  as 
have  been  made  with  other  metals  have  nor  as  yet  been 
recognized  as  having  any  practical  value  in  arts  or  manu- 
factures. 


Aluminum  Bronze. 


17 


Aluminum  Bronz; 


Aluminum. 

ti 

0> 

> 

33 

1 

2 

a 
H 

Aluminum  silver  for  fine  instruments  .  .  . 

9fi 

4 

Alloy,  for  watch-springs,  etc  

5 

90 

Aluminum  bronze,  hard  malleable  gold  color.  .  .  . 
soft 
"               "       medium     "       greenish  gold. 

10 
5 

74 
1 

90 
95 
92i 
99 

Aluminum  copper   for  engraving     .  .       . 

0 

98 

Alloy  hard  as  coin-silver  

5 

95 

50 

50 

99 

1 

Alloy  brittle   crystalline     

90 

10 

Alloy,  harder  than  aluminum  and  polishes  well.  . 
Alloy,  similar  to  14-carat  gold  

95 
10 

5 

85 

5 

Gun-metal,  with  aluminum  alloy,  equal  to  cast- 
steel  in  strength  ;  good  for  bells   etc 

9, 

90 

10 

Aluminum  Bronze.— The  best  quality  of  aluminum 
bronze  is  made  by  alloying  copper  with  from  five  to  ten  per 
cent  of  aluminum. 

The  alloy  is  far  superior  to  any  of  the  common  bronzes, 
being  far  more  rigid— chips,  files,  and  machines  better;  the 
turnings  not  being  short  and  chippy,  like  brass  or  cast-iron, 
but  long  and  connected  after  the  manner  of  the  best 
mild  steel.  It  has  a  beautiful  gold  color,  takes  a  splen- 
did polish,  does  not  easily  tarnish,  works  well  under  the 
artist's  tools;  and,  while  it  makes  an  excellent  imitation 
gold,  and  as  such  is  used  extensively  for  a  great  variety 
of  objects,  useful  and  ornamental,  yet  it  is  unquestionably 
the  king  of  alloys  for  guns,  journal-bearings,  bells,  and 
many  other  purposes  too  numerous  to  enumerate  here, 
owing  to  its  great  tenacity,  malleability,  and  good  wearing 
qualities,  the  fineness  of  its  grain  making  it  a  highly 
desirable  alloy  for  all  parts  of  machinery  that  are  subjected 
to  friction, 


Amalgam.  1&  Amalgamation. 

Like  copper,  its  qualities  of  softness  and  ductility  are 
improved  by  sudden  cooling,  and,  strange  to  say,  like  iron, 
it  may  be  forged  and  welded — something  utterly  impossi- 
ble with  other  alloys.  But  to  obtain  the  best  results  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  best  copper  and  the  purest 
aluminum  be  used  for  making  the  alloy.  See  ALUMINUM; 
ALUMINUM  ALLOYS. 

Amalgam  means  that  class  of  alloys  with  which 
mercury  forms  one  of  the  combining  metals.  With  regard 
to  the  nature  of  the  union  that  takes  place  in  such  com- 
binations it  has  been  remarked  that,  on  adding  successive 
small  quantities  of  silver  to  mercury,  a  variety  of  fluid 
amalgams  are  apparently  produced.  Eeully,  the  chief,  if 
not  the  only,  compound  resulting  from  this  operation  is  a 
solid  amalgam,  which  is  intimately  diffused  throughout 
the  fluid  mass.  In  other  words,  the  fluidity  of  an  amal- 
gam depends  on  there  being  an  excess  of  mercury  over  and 
above  the  amount  required  to  form  a  definite  compound. 
Mercury  immediately  combines  with  silver  and  gold  at 
common  temperatures,  but  with  iron,  even  when  hot,  it  is 
not  disposed  to  unite.  See  AMALGAMATION;  MERCURY. 

Amalgamation  is  the  operation  of  mixing  mercury 
with  any  metal  to  form  an  amalgam.  This  is  done  by 
fusing  the  metal  first  and  adding  the  mercury  to  it,  on 
which  they  at  once  mutually  attract  each  other.  The 
amalgam  of  gold  with  mercury  is  made  by  beating  gold 
(1  drachm)  into  thin  plates  and  setting  them  into  a  red-hot 
crucible;  the  mercury  (1  ounce)  is  then  poured  in,  and  the 
whole  well  stirred  with  an  iron  rod  until  it  begins  to  fume, 
when  it  must  be  poured  into  water  to  coagulate.  Some 
processes  of  gilding  and  silvering  are  conducted  by  amal- 
gamation (see  MERCURY);  but  its  most  extensive  use  is  in 
separating  metals,  silver  especially,  from  their  ores  by  dis- 


Amber.  19  Ammonia. 

solving  the  particles  of  metal  and  leaving  the  earthy  matter. 
Substantially,  the  process  consists  of  first  crushing  the 
quartz  rock,  in  which  the  particles  of  gold  are  imbedded, 
by  means  of  stamp-mills,  and  placing  the  dust,  mixed  with 
mercury,  into  rapidly  revolving  vessels.  The  mercury,  by 
this  process,  attaches  to  itself  all  the  gold  particles  and  forms 
a  semi-fluid  mass,  which  is  mercury  in  a  half-congealed 
state,  containing  all  the  gold.  This  amalgam  is  then  placed 
in  a  retort  and  heat  applied ;  which  operation  separates  the 
mercury  by  sublimation,  to  be  again  employed  for  further 
amalgamation,  and  leaves  the  collected  gold  in  the  body  of 
the  retort.  See  AMALGAM;  SUBLIMATION;  MERCURY; 
SILVER;  GOLD. 

Amber. — One  of  a  number  of  fossil  substances  that 
resemble  the  resins.  It  is  found  along  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic,  and  occurs  in  beds  of  lignite  in  many  localities. 
With  friction  it  becomes  highly  electric.  It  is  a  mixture 
of  several  resinous  bodies;  it  also  contains  succinic  acid. 
Only  one  eighth  part  is,  in  its  natural  state,  soluble  in 
alcohol ;  but  it  dissolves  readily  after  it  has  been  fused,  in 
which  state  it  is  used  for  a  varnish,  etc.  It  is  composed 
of  carbon  80.5,  hydrogen  7.3,  oxygen  6.7,  ashes  (lime, 
silica,  alumina)  3.27.  See  RESIN. 

American-Scotch  Pig-iron.— A  common  name 
for  some  brands  of  American  pig-iron,  in  which  the  silicon 
is  high,  and  for  which  reason  they  have  gradually  sup- 
planted the  original  Scotch  irons  which  were  formerly 
imported  as  softeners.  See  SCOTCH  IRON  ;  SOFTENERS. 

Ammonia. — A  colorless  irrespirable  gas,  of  an  ex- 
tremely pungent  and  caustic  taste,  lighter  than  air  (sp.  gr. 
0.59).  It  exists  in  very  minute  quantities  in  the  atmos- 
phere, rain-water,  fog,  and  dew.  Ammonia  is  the  only 


Amorphism.  20  Analysis. 

known  compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen;  it  is  a  con- 
stant product  of  the  decomposition  of  organic  substances 
which  contain  nitrogen.  It  is  produced  from  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  horns  and  hoofs,  but  the  liquor  of  the 
gas-works  furnishes  the  chief  source  of  commercial  am- 
monia. Being  a  gas  it  is  called  volatile  alkali  to  distinguish 
it  from  those  which  are  fixed,  or  solid.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  derived  from  the  horns  of  harts,  it  is  commonly 
called  spirits  of  hartshorn.  See  ALKALI. 

Amorpliism. — This  term  expresses  the  opposite  of 
the  crystalline  state.  Diamond  is  crystalline  carbon;  char- 
coal and  lamp-black  are  amorphous  carbon.  Amorphous 
bodies  are  without  any  regular  form  or  trace  of  crystalline 
structure,  as  wrought-iron;  they  fracture  irregularly,  in 
any  direction,  and  are  generally  more  soluble  and  less  hard 
and  dense  than  in  the  crystalline  form.  See  CRYSTAL- 
LIZATION. 

Anchor. — A  name  frequently  given  to  studs  and  chap- 
lets  generally,  but  more  correctly  applied  to  any  special 
contrivance  for  maintaining  isolated  portions  of  a  mould 
which,  but  for  such  means,  would  be  forced  out  of  position. 
A  core  is  anchored  down  when  its  security  depends  on  a 
bolt,  or  wire,  which  binds  it  to  the  mould.  See  CHAPLET. 

Analysis. — The  subject  of  analysis  in  relation  to  gen- 
eral foundry  practice  has  for  some  time  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  our  foundry  associations  East  and  West,  and  called 
forth  considerable  comment  from  leading  chemists  and 
manufacturers  all  over.  The  writer's  views  upon  the  ques- 
tion are  set  forth  in  the  following  paper,  composed  by 
him,  and  read  at  a  meeting  of  the  Western  Foundrymen's 
Association,  held  in  Chicago,  February  28,  1894: 

An  article  of  mine  on  "Mixing  Cast  Iron,"  which  ap- 


Analysis.  21  Analysis. 

peared  in  the  issues  of  March  24  and  31,  1892,  of  the 
American  Machinist,  and  now  constitutes  the  third  chapter 
in  my  book,  "The  Iron  Founder  Supplement/'  was  the 
natural  outcome  of  experiences  therein  related.  It  was 
with  some  trepidation  on  my  part  that  the  article  was 
presented,  as  at  that  early  period  of  my  experience  in 
these  matters  I  hardly  felt  able  to  adequately  exhibit  a 
subject  which,  to  me  at  least,  appeared  in  the  light  of  a 
revelation. 

The  article  met  with  a  determined  opposition  from  some 
quarters,  both  here  and  abroad  ;  but  I  shall  ever  esteem 
the  kindly  criticism  of  Professor  Torrey,  who,  while  ad- 
mitting that  science  must,  for  some  time  at  least,  get  the 
lion's  share  of  the  benefits  accruing  from  a  system  of 
chemical  analysis  in  the  foundry,  thought  the  establish- 
ment of  laboratories,  and  the  installation  of  chemists  in 
that  department  of  the  iron  industries,  would  be  a  very 
good  thing.  He  concludes  a  very  instructive  review  of  the 
subject  as  follows  :  "  I  have  no  intention  of  trying  to  in- 
struct Mr.  Bolland,  or  any  other  foundryman.  I  have 
simply  called  to  mind  a  number  of  facts  with  which  they 
are,  presumably,  as  well  acquainted  as  I  am — better,  per- 
haps, with  one  side.  The  only  object  in  so  doing  is  to  put 
the  question  of  chemistry  in  the  foundry  in  its  proper  light 
with  relation  to  existing  facts.  Perhaps  the  foundry  at 
large,  from  a  business  point  of  view,  would  be  benefited  by 
the  co-operation  of  the  chemical  laboratory;  but  I  do  not 
as  yet  believe  it.  ...  The  foundry  has  not  the  great  train 
of  waste  and  by-products  that  many  industries  have,  and 
the  waste,  such  as  it  is,  can  be  better  controlled.  The  one 
place  where  it  would  seem  that  chemistry  might  come  in 
would  be  in  the  mixing  of  irons,  as  Mr.  Bolland  suggests  ; 
but,  as  previously  stated,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that 
anything  definite  or  satisfactory  would  be  accomplished." 
Since  then,  however,  a  gradual  change  has  been  taking 


Analysis.  22  Analysis. 

place,  and  an  eminent  metallurgical  chemist,  Mr.  Clemens 
Jones,  emphatically  states  that  "  the  foundryman  is  in  a 
position  to  say  to  the  pig-iron  ranker,  '  I  want  such  a  qual- 
ity of  iron/  and  the  furnace  manager  is  in  a  position  to 
light  his  fires  and  make  it." 

With  such  assurance  from  one  so  conspicuously  qualified 
to  pronounce  an  opinion  on  these  themes,  may  we  foundry- 
men  not  anticipate  the  time  when,  hy  reason  of  a  superior 
education,  we  shall  be  able  to  exactly  determine  our  re- 
quirements, and  prove  beyond  question  the  validity  of  such 
an  assertion  ? 

We  who  are  not  chemists  naturally  cling  tenaciously  to 
the  only  tangible  support  that,  up  to  the  present,  has  been 
vouchsafed  us,  viz. :  the  testing-machine;  and  I  am  per- 
suaded that  it  will  take  some  time  to  convert  the  large 
majority  of  founders  to  a  belief  in  this  (to  them)  new  de- 
parture. My  first  acquaintance  with  this  subject  dates 
from  the  time  when  I  was  associated  with  Mr.  Molin, 
metallurgical  chemist,  New  York  City.  At  that  time  I 
looked  upon  the  faculty  as  a  decided  superfluity  in  a  foun- 
dry; but  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  say  that,  while  he  noticed 
my  self-assurance,  he  consistently  acted,  not  only  the 
scholar,  but  the  gentleman.  He  also  unmistakably  demon- 
strated his  ability  to  accomplish,  by  chemical  analysis,  what 
had  before  seemed  impossible  of  accomplishment ;  and, 
while  he  may  not  have  made  a  chemist  out  of  such  crude 
material,  I  am  certainly  a  sound  convert  to  the  methods  of 
which  he  is  so  able  an  exponent. 

A  careful  perusal  of  Mr.  Keep's  able  papers  and  other 
kindred  works,  as  well  as  the  exhaustive  productions  read 
before  this  and  the  Eastern  Association  by  our  foremost 
chemists,  has  established  my  belief  beyond  question.  Mr. 
Henderson,  in  his  address  before  the  Foundrymen's  Asso- 
ciation, of  Philadelphia,  brings  this  whole  subject  out  in 
bold  relief  when  he  says  :  "But  what  of  permanent  avail 


Analysis.  *«>  Analysis. 

is  accomplished  by  the  application  of  physical  tests  to 
material  the  chemical  composition  of  which  is  unknown  ? 
The  very  utmost  that  can  be  hoped  from  such  tests  is  to 
establish  the  fact  that  a  definite  lot  of  material  is  either 
good  or  bad." 

The  above  is  preceded  by  a  forcible  plea  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  chemistry  as  a  factor  in  foundry  practice  on  the 
following  grounds  :  "That,  whereas  it  is  known  that 
certain  impurities  in  material  produce  certain  character- 
istic effects  upon  the  physical  behavior  of  manufacture  re- 
sulting from  its  employment ;  that  certain  combinations  of 
impurities  produce  certain  other  effects,  and  that  in  the 
process  of  conversion,  which  is  in  every  case  a  chemical 
one,  these  impurities  may  be  eliminated,  retained,  or  forced 
into  combination  with  others  according  to  fixed  laws  and 
conditions  to  which  they  are  subjected."  But  he  further 
affirms  that  in  order  to  secure  a  proper  adjustment  of  these 
proportions,  so  that  the  resultant  casting  shall  meet  all  the 
requirements  in  the  case,  ability  of  the  highest  order  must 
be  employed,  simply  because  the  line  is  not  so  clearly  de- 
fined, on  either  side  of  which  an  element  may  not  enter 
into  its  composition  without  disaster. 

The  same  author,  comparing  the  value  of  chemical 
against  physical  tests,  affirms  that,  "  A  fact  once  established 
by  chemical  research  remains  fixed  for  all  time.  When  it 
is  known  that  a  certain  percentage  of  an  element  in  a 
material  under  certain  conditions  produces  a  certain  physi- 
cal effect,  every  time  these  conditions  are  reached  in  this 
material  having  the  same  percentage  of  the  element  this 
identical  physical  effect  is  obtained  and  no  other." 

Mr.  Keep  claims  that  "  intelligent  mixing  of  irons  can- 
not be  accomplished  without  the  aid  of  chemistry,  and  con 
elusions  must  be  reached  by  the  united  work  of  chemistry 
and  physical  experiment."  That  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  the  chemist  will  be  acknowledged  as  the  supreme 


Analysis.  %±  Analysis. 

factor  in  foundry  economics  is  significantly  put  by  the 
same  author,  who  on  this  phase  of  the  subject  says  :  "If  a 
man  with  a  thorough  chemical  education  would  learn  to 
look  at  general  tendencies  and  not  hold  so  closely  to  four 
figures  of  decimals,  and  accept  the  results  of  late  research, 
he  could  adapt  himself  to  general  foundry-work  and  be  of 
great  use.  He  would  soon  leave  his  laboratory  and  become 
the  practical  leader,  and  would  only  go  back  occasionally  to 
solve  some  problem  that  needs  new  light.  We  cannot  have 
too  much  respect  for  chemistry.  Practical  research  could 
do  nothing  without  it  ;  but  after  general  conclusions  are 
reached,  then  to  be  of  use  the  chemist  must  become  the 
practical  metallurgist." 

On  this  head,  Professor  Torrey  cogently  informs  us  that 
"it  takes  the  skilled  metallurgical  engineer  to  reason  from 
the  chemistry  to  the  physics  of  iron ;  and  the  chemist  must 
be  a  good  one  if  the  results  are  to  be  good  for  anything. 

It  may  be  readily  inferred  from  the  preceding  that  the 
chemist's  work  in  the  foundry  must  be  practical  in  all  its 
bearings,  and  that  a  mere  school  knowledge  of  the  science 
would  be  of  little  service  there. 

Subjects  like  the  porosity  of  castings,  cast-iron  and  steel, 
would,  under  the  supervision  of  a  chemist,  be  subjected  to 
a  superior  system  of  examination  :  even  the  ordinary  cruci- 
ble tests  would  receive  his  strict  attention,  with  the  positive 
assurance  of  their  being  made  intelligently.  Metal-mixing 
would  be  transferred  from  the  ignorant  mechanic,  with  his 
crude  systems,  to  the  more  positive  and  scientific  methods 
of  chemical  research — just  where  it  should  have  been  long 
ago.  For  the  want  of  intelligent  direction,  the  best  sys- 
tems of  mechanical  testing  have  always  been  more  or  less 
defective ;  and,  as  matters  now  stand,  formulas  of  any  kind 
are  seldom  understood  and  as  seldom  acted  up  to.  The 
chemist  would  change  all  this  with  the  greatest  ease  and 
dispatch.  The  business  of  steel-founding  would  have  de- 


Analysis.  25  Analysis. 

veloped  more  rapidly  if  the  chemist  had  been  consulted 
with  regard  to  the  materials  for  forming  the  moulds  as 
well  as  for  the  metal  with  which  to  fill  them.  Brass  - 
founding  is  almost  exclusively  a  branch  of  metallurgical 
chemistry;  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  few  advances 
made  in  that  art  have  emanated  from  the  chemist's  labora- 
tory rather  than  the  brass-shop. 

There  is  nothing  used  in  a  foundry  that  does  not  re- 
quire rigid  inspection  when  purchased,  such  as  an  able 
chemist  only  can  give ;  and  it  would  be  to  the  interest  of 
every  firm  that  not  only  the  iron,  but  fuel,  sand,  fire-bricks, 
clays,  and  every  material  employed,  should  undergo  close 
scrutiny.  By  this  means  all  fraudulent  impositions  would 
be  at  once  detected.  Already  we  may  observe  that  sands 
for  foundry  purposes  are  receiving  some  attention  from 
the  chemist. 

Analysis  at  once  discovers  just  what  may  be  used  for  the 
numerous  classes  of  castings  made.  We  may  expect  to  be 
informed  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  we  have  been 
unnecessarily  annoyed  by  the  presence  of  elements  unfa- 
vorable to  the  production  of  good  castings,  when,  perhaps, 
a  more  suitable  material  has  been  overlooked  that  might 
have  been  employed  with  impunity  at  a  much  less  cost. 
The  percentage  of  iron  oxide,  alumina,  organic  and  volatile 
matters  present  being  made  known,  there  will  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  making  such  selection  as  will  meet  every  require- 
ment absolutely. 

It  is  reasonable  to  presume  that  the  advent  of  a  chemist 
in  the  foundry  will  deter  the  artful  agent  from  forcing 
material  upon  a  firm  that  did  not  in  every  respect  measure 
to  the  full  what  it  was  represented  to  be,  and  it  is  certain 
that  the  popularity  of  many  favorite  irons  would  go  up 
with  the  smoke  from  the  laboratory  when  a  test  in  the 
latter  sanctum  had  revealed  its  marked  deficiencies. 

Fracture  will  no  longer  be  relied  upon,  as  it  is  now  a 


Analysis.  £6  Analysis. 

well-authenticated  fact  that  analysis  Las  shown  that  very 
many  of  the  No.  1  irons  are  inferior  to  No.  2  of  other 
brands  which  maybe  purchased  for  less  money — saving,  in 
many  instances,  from  50  cents  to  $1.50  per  ton. 

There  can  be  no  question  as  to  how  some  of  our  foremost 
firms  are  producing  castings  for  such  low  figures  at  this 
time.  To  my  personal  knowledge,  analysis  of  the  mate- 
rials employed  is  at  the  bottom  of  it ;  for,  by  reason  of  the 
knowledge  thus  obtained,  they  have  been  enabled  to  pur- 
chase both  pig-iron  and  scrap  at  ridiculously  low  figures, 
very  much  of  which,  under  the  old  rule-of-thumb  methods, 
would  have  been  rejected  as  unfit  for  the  purpose.  In 
many  instances  this  decided  advantage  has  been  further 
supplemented  by  the  production  of  better  castings. 

It  is  certain  that  those  who  buy  on  analysis,  knowing 
what  they  want,  monopolize  every  opportunity  for  grab- 
bing whatever  offers  cheap,  as  the  chances  for  future  dis- 
appointment are  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  substitu- 
tion for  the  old  unsafe  method  of  one  that  is  not  only 
cheap,  but  sure. 

There  is  practically  no  difficulty  in  producing  steel  of 
any  desired  quality,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  different 
elements  are  now  so  well  known  and  may,  by  chemical 
test,  be  regulated  in  such  proportions  as  will  result  in  the 
quality  of  steel  required.  To  accomplish  this  without  loss 
and  inconvenience,  all  the  material  is  tested  before  pur- 
chase is  made,  and  the  user  knows  exactly  what  he  has 
bought,  a.nd  can,  without  fear  of  mistake,  proceed  to  the 
manufacture  of  his  product,  knowing  from  the  beginning 
what  the  end  will  be.  Surely  castings,  pig-iron  and  scrap, 
can  be  analyzed  with  as  great  nicety  so  that  when  fault  is 
found  with  the  resultant  castings,  the  true  cause  of  the 
trouble  may  be  located,  the  mixture  changed  to  the  requi- 
site proportions,  and  thus  control  the  business  as  effectually 
as  it  is  now  done  for  steel.  In  framing  mixtures  for  cast 


Analysis.  27  Analysis. 

iron,  it  must  naturally  occur  to  the  least  observant  that  if 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  elements  contained  in  the  iron 
produce  certain  chemical  effects,  which,  in  turn,  are  pro- 
ductive of  certain  physical  properties  which  may  be  altered 
according  to  the  proportions  employed,  we  are  forced  to 
the  conclusion  that  chemical  analysis  will  reveal  whatever 
is  lacking,  and  will  also  suggest  a  remedy. 

A  defect  in  some  pump-castings  resulted  in  an  analysis 
of  the  iron  being  made  by  Mr.  Molin,  who  found  that  it 
was  too  high  in  graphitic  and  correspondingly  low  in  com- 
bined carbon,  which  caused  a  soft,  porous  iron  that  would 
dissolve  rapidly  in  the  water  from  the  mine.  This  dis- 
covery led  to  an  immediate  change  in  the  mixture — an 
additional  quantity  of  combined  carbon  effecting  at  once 
what  under  the  old  regime  would  not  have  been  satisfac- 
torily accomplished  until  the  offending  stock  had  been  all 
used  up  and  a  change  brought  about,  perhaps,  by  a  new  con- 
signment. The  latter  alternative  is,  unfortunately,  the  only 
means  of  escape  possible  for  numbers  of  foundries  to-day 
almost  everywhere.  Desiring  to  learn  more  in  reference  to 
the  above,  I  waited  upon  the  superintendent  of  the  firm,  who 
informed  me  that  an  elaborate  system  of  physical  tests  were 
the  order  of  the  day,  and  that  unremitting  attention  was 
paid  to  this  department;  but  he  was  now  firmly  persuaded 
that,  unless  this  was  accompanied  by  chemical  analysis, 
they  would  always  be  subject  to  a  like  experience. 

Personally,  I  may  state  that  since  I  became  satisfied  in 
reference  to  the  wonderful  property  of  silicon  to  change 
white  and  intermediate  grades  of  iron  more  or  less  high  in 
combined  carbon,  into  graphitic  iron,  I  have  experienced  no 
difficulty  whatever  in  arranging  my  mixtures,  simply  be- 
cause a  physical  test  informs  me  of  its  strength,  and,  if 
the  shrinkage  is  found  too  high,  it  is  evidence  of  hardness, 
which  latter  condition  I  now  know  may  be  lessened  by  an 


Analysis.  23  Analysis. 

increase  of  silicon,  the  shrinkage  always  decreasing  in  pro- 
portion as  the  iron  becomes  more  graphitic. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  the  common  run  of  small  foun 
dries  will  employ  a  chemist,  but  if  it  be  found  in  the  long 
run  that  the  system  of  analysis  pays,  there  is  no  question 
but  that  they  too  will  contrive  some  means  for  obtaining 
these  valuable  aids.  For  instance,  proprietors7  sons  who 
have  hitherto  been  satisfied  with  the  regular  routine  of 
office-work  will  now  have  their  ordinary  course  of  educa- 
tion supplemented  by  a  course  in  metallurgical  chemistry, 
and  thus  qualify  themselves  for  the  position  of  chemist  as 
well  as  clerk. 

A  chemist  lately  said  that  the  reason  of  foundrymen 
remaining  in  the  blindfold  state  in  which  they  are  is  simply 
their  ignorance  of  the  fine  elements  which  determine  the 
quality  of  their  castings  ;  and,  furthermore,  that  this  knowl- 
edge can  be  easily  obtained  by  any  intelligent  clerk,  who  may 
then  with  an  outfit,  costing  about  $200,  proceed  to  make 
tests  for  these  elements  as  satisfactorily  as  any  chemist. 

One  thing,  however,  is  certain — our  young  men  are  grad- 
ually awakening  to  the  advantages  open  for  students  in  the 
technical  schools;  and,  as  chemistry  is  taught  at  most  of 
them,  we  may  expect  in  the  near  future  to  see  our  benevo- 
lent employers  rendering  substantial  aid  to  their  appren- 
tices, in  order  that  they  may  be  qualified  for  the  important 
duty  of  making  an  analysis. 

Why  is  it  that  our  technical  schools  stand  aloof  from 
this  all-important  question?  Is  this,  like  everything  else 
pertaining  to  the  foundry,  to  be  tabooed  also?  Have 
moulders  and  founders  no  rights  that  these  institutions  feel 
bound  to  respect  ?  Surely  the  day  is  now  past  when  a 
found ryman  is  to  be  spurned  because  of  the  apparent 
griminess  of  his  business.  I  think  the  advent  of  chem- 
istry in  the  foundry  will  mark  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
foundrymen.  Hitherto  the  faculty  have  shunned  them  on 


Annealing.  29  Annealing. 

account  of  their  surroundings,  but  the  rays  of  science  have 
penetrated  the  dark  moulding-shop  at  last,  and  her  votaries 
hasten  to  undo  the  errors  of  the  past,  because,  discerning 
the  numerous  problems  that  remain  as  yet  unsolved,  they 
have  finally  cast  prejudice  aside,  and  are  now  walking  hand 
in  hand,  the  more  practical  moulder  being  guided  by  the 
scientist  iu  paths  that  harmonize  with  physical  law. 

Your  true  man  of  science  now  acknowledges  freely 
that  the  foundryman  is  deserving  of  more  than  ordinary 
credit  in  that  so  much  has  hitherto  been  accomplished 
by  men  who  were  shrouded  in  such  a  dark  panoply  of 
ignorance. 

It  is  to  the  truly  great  among  these  men  of  science 
that  the  future  founder  must  look  for  enfranchisement. 
Let  furnaces  and  the  necessary  equipment  for  the  smelting 
of  ores,  metals,  alloys,  etc.,  be  at  once  erected  in  our  tech- 
nical schools,  where  our  aspiring  youth  may  be  taught  ex- 
perimentally how  to  eliminate  the  objectionable  elements 
from  metals;  also  to  determine  by  analysis  of  materials, 
including  fuel,  slags,  ores,  fluxes,  etc.,  what  their  natures 
consist  of,  and  thus  qualify  themselves  for  the  very  excel- 
lent change  in  their  position,  which  to  me  seems  inevitable 
in  the  near  future. 

Annealing.  —  The  process  of  removing  brittleness 
from  castings,  glass,  and  other  substances  by  heating  them 
to  a  specified  temperature  in  suitable  ovens  or  furnaces  for 
a  certain  period,  and  then  allowing  them  to  slowly  become 
cool  again,  prolonging  the  time  in  accordance  with  the 
nature  of  the  article  under  treatment.  Glass  is  heated  to 
almost  smelting  heat  to  admit  of  a  uniform  arrangement 
of  its  molecules  before  it  is  in  a  suitable  condition  for 
grinding  and  polishing — from  six  hours  to  two  weeks  being 
required  for  this  complete  operation,  according  to  thick- 
ness ;  heavy  plate  requires  the  longest  time,  The  brittle- 


Animal  Casts  in  Metal.  30  Antifriction  Metals. 

ness  to  which  heavy  steel-dies  'are  subject  is  removed 
by  placing  them  in  water,  heating  to  boiling,  and  then 
gradually  cooled.  Lead,  tin,  and  zinc  are  annealed  in 
the  same  manner.  Heavy  castings  in  bronze  or  cast 
iron  may  be  partially  annealed  by  slow  cooling  in  hot 
cinders. 

Annealing  is  evidently  the  inverse  process  of  temper- 
ing, the  latter  operation  acting  to  fix  the  molecular 
condition  of  steel  by  a  rapid  (not  a  slow)  change  of 
temperature.  See  TEMPERING;  MALLEABLE  CAST-IRON  ; 
CAR-WHEEL. 

Animal  Casts  in  Metal.— See  INSECT  CASTS  IN 
METAL. 

Anthracite. — A  kind  of  coal  which  is  known  by 
many  names,  as  stone,  blind,  glance,  and  Kilkenny 
coal.  There  are  several  varieties  and  nearly  all  possess 
the  property  of  burning  without  smoke  or  flame.  See 
COAL. 

Anthracite  Facing. — Finely  ground  Lehigh  coal, 
which  has  been  carefully  selected  for  its  freedom  from  im- 
purities. It  is  one  of  the  cheapest  blacking-facings,  and 
answers  just  as  well  as  the  dearer  brands  for  rough  work 
and  cores  when  mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  charcoal- 
facing—especially  as  a  w"et  blacking.  See  FACING  ;  BLACK- 
WASH. 

Antifriction  Metals  are  alloys  compounded  with 
the  view  of  lessening  friction  in  the  bearings  and 
journal-boxes  of  machinery.  Some  of  the  compositions 
given  in  the  following  table  are  for  linings  only,  while 
others  are  for  the  bearings  or  steps,  which  require  no 
lining. 


Antimony. 


31 


Antimony. 


ANTIFRICTION  ALLOYS. 


I 

t 

1 
3 

Antimony. 

o 

i 

6 

_g 

1 

0 

M 

TH  1-1  »O  <N 

17 
85 

u 



Good  Bearing  (not  a  lining)  
*•        (  "    "      "    )  

1 

10 

8 
10 

24 
0.5 
1 
13.97 
10 
9.49 
2.44 
8 

25 

24 

2 

24 

24 

72 



Lining  (soften  with  lead  if  too  hard) 

1 
1 

24 

17 
20 
86.03 
82 
73.96 
89.02 
79 

16 
16 

4 

.  .  .  .  1 

Journal-box   Lining,  to   be  melted 
and  run  into  ingots  first  

R 

0.25 

1 

Lining  for  Loco.  Axle-tree  
"                              "        French.. 
"              "        English.. 
"       "       "              "        Belgian.. 
"       "       "              "     Stephenson 
Extra  Lining  (melt  tin  and  antimony 
and  pour  to  the  melted  copper).  .  . 

.... 

R" 

•• 



7.09 

9.03 

7.76 
5 

0.43 
0.78 

3 

i 

* 

Hard  Bearin(r                       

Smix  for  hard- 
ening   
then  add.  .  .  . 

8 

Lining  very  cheap     .         .  .  -   

100 

15 

8 

Hardening  for  Babbitt's  Metal  
(For  linings  use  1  pound  of  hard- 
ening to  2  pounds  of  tin.) 

4 

24 

See  BABBITT'S  METAL  ;  FENTON'S  ANTIFKICTION  METAL. 

Antimony. — This  is  a  brilliant  white  metal  of  a  crys- 
talline texture  and  bluish  white  color,  and  so  brittle  that 
it  cannot  be  rolled  into  sheets  nor  drawn  into  wire.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  6.71;  melts  at  810°,  crystallizes  in 
pyramids,  and  volatilizes  at  an  intense  heat.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  the  ore,  but  the  sulphuric,  or  gray 
antimony,  is  the  most  abundant,  and  yields  the  metal  of 
commerce.  To  reduce  the  ore  it  is  first  made  into  a 
powder,  nf  ter  which  it  is  heated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace; 


Antimony.  «32  Antimony. 

the  melted  sulplmret  then  flows  from  the  infusible  earthy 
matter,  and  is  subsequently  smelted  and  purified.  Ex- 
posed to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures  antimony  does 
not  rust;  this  property,  combined  with  its  hardening  in- 
fluence on  other  inetals,  renders  it  eminently  useful  in  the 
composition  of  many  useful  alloys  to  make  them  harder 
and  whiter. 

It  is  usually  found  associated  with  other  metals,  but 
always  contains  more  or  less  iron.  The  crude  metal,  or 
sulphuret,  is  employed  for  purifying- gold,  the  sulphur 
from  which  being  readily  absorbed  by  the  inferior  metals, 
while  the  antimony  unites  with  the  gold.  Antimony  has 
generally  been  distinguished  as  Regulus,  or  petty  king, 
because  of  the  hardening  influence  previously  mentioned ; 
alloyed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  tin  we  have  a  brilliant 
white  and  somewhat  hard  alloy  suitable  for  some  descrip- 
tions of  specula.  Sodium  and  potassium  are  the  metals 
with  which  antimony  unites  the  most  readily,  as,  even 
when  the  former  are  alloyed  with  other  metals,  the  associa- 
tion is  found  to  be  of  an  intimate  character.  Antimony 
readily  combines  with  gold,  but  destroys  the  ductility  of 
the  latter,  producing  a  granular  alloy  of  a  golden  tint, 
the  depth  of  which  is  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  gold 
present. 

Antimony  contracts  little  or  none  in  cooling.  For  this 
reason  it  is  doubly  valuable  in  the  production  of  types, 
music  and  other  plates,  etc.,  as,  besides  giving  the  re- 
quisite degree  of  hardness  to  such  alloys,  it  enables  the 
founder  to  obtain  a  true  copy  of  the  matrix — something 
almost  impossible  in  most  of  the  other  metals  employed 
for  this  purpose,  owing  to  their  high  shrinking  qualities. 

For  a  large  variety  of  alloys  in  which  antimony  enters 
as  an  ingredient,  see  WHITE  ALLOYS;  TYPE-METAL;  ANTI- 
FRICTION ALLOYS;  PEWTER;  BRITANNIA  METAL;  QUEEN'S 
METAL;  Music  METAL;  SPECULUM  METAL;  SOLDERS, 


Apothecaries'  Weight.  33  Arsenic. 

Apothecaries'  Weight.— In  this  arrangement  the 
pound  contains  12  ounces;  each  ounce  8  drachms;  each 
drachm  3  scruples,  and  each  scruple  20  grains. 

Apprenticeship.— See  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  FOR 
THE  MOULDER. 

Aqiia-regia.— Royal- water,  so  called  from  its  power 
to  dissolve  gold,  the  king  of  metals.  Its  scientific  name  is 
nitro-muriatic  acid.  See  GOLD. 

Arabic  Gum. — Gum-arabic  is  a  gum  which  flows  from 
the  acacia  tree  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  Arabia,  and  in 
some  other  parts.  It  forms  a  clear,  transparent  mucilage 
with  water,  and  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  or  ether. 

Arbor.— See  CORE-ARBOR. 

Argent  an. — Imitation  silver.  See  WHITE  ARGEN- 
TAN. 

Argol-flux. — A  flux  made  from  impure  cream  of 
tartar  or  acid  tartrate  of  potash,  which  constitutes  the  in- 
crustation on  the  insides  of  wine  casks.  See  FLUX. 

Arm. — A  spindle  attachment  for  carrying  the  sweep- 
board  which  forms  a  mould.  See  SPINDLE. 

Arsenic. — Arsenic  is  sometimes  found  pure,  but  more 
generally  combined  with  nickel,  cobalt,  sulphur,  and  iron. 
To  separate  arsenic  from  the  ores,  they  are  first  crushed 
and  the  arsenic  dissipated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  by 
roasting,  when  the  arsenious  acid  is  condensed  into  white 
arsenic.  The  metal  is  obtained  from  white  arsenic  by  in- 
corporating it  with  carbonaceous  matter  and  heating  in 


Arsenious  Acid.  34  Arsenious  Acid. 

a  closed  crucible  provided  with  a  receiver,  in  which  the 
arsenic  is  condensed  as  a  brittle  white  metal  with  a  slight 
degree  of  lustre  ;  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  5.7,  its 
melting-point  being  400°.  At  500°  it  volatilizes  without 
fusing,  the  vapor  having  a  strong  tincture  of  garlic.  The 
metal  may  be  powdered  in  a  mortar. 

The  chief  property  of  arsenic  is  to  promote  the  union  of 
metals  that  would  be  otherwise  difficult  to  mix — aluminum 
with  iron ;  lead  with  zinc  ;  lead  with  iron,  etc.  It  pro- 
motes the  fusion  of  many  metals,  and  occasions  some  re- 
fractory ones  to  melt  at  a  low  temperature.  Being  a  union 
rather  than  a  true  alloy,  it  is  customary  to  call  all  alloys  of 
arsenic  by  the  name  of  arsenides. 

While  arsenic,  like  antimony,  tends  to  crystallize  other 
metals,  they  are  not  rendered  as  brittle  as  the  latter  metal 
makes  them.  Nearly  all  metals  combine  with  arsenic  ; 
but,  except  in  the  case  of  silver  and  gold,  such  alloys  may 
be  decomposed  by  lengthened  fusion.  White  tombac  is 
copper  alloyed  with  arsenic.  The  metal  for  lead-shot  is 
rendered  more  fusible  and  solid  by  a  slight  proportion  of 
this  metal,  and  gold  may  be  permanently  alloyed  to  form  a 
brittle  arseniuret  of  gold  by  exposing  the  heated  metal  to 
its  vapors. 

From  £  to  f  of  an  ounce  to  the  pound  of  any  alloy  will 
materially  assist  in  preventing  a  tendency  to  porosity,  but 
will  result  in  a  harder  casting,  somewhat  lighter  in  color. 
Speculums  and  all  similar  objects  are,  by  means  of  this 
metal,  made  hard,  white,  and  lustrous. 

For  the  manner  of  fluxing  alloys  of  arsenic,  also  the 
methods  employed  for  introducing  this  metal  into  the 
crucible,  and  alloys  containing  arsenic,  see  SPECULUMS; 
TOMBAC;  LEAD-SHOT;  COBALT. 

Arsenious  Acid. — White  arsenic.  See  ARSENIC; 
WHITE  ARSENIC. 


Artificial  Diamond.  35  Asbestos. 

Artificial  Diamond.— See  DIAMOND. 

Artificial  Gold. — A  French  substitute  for  gold  is 
made  as  follows  :  Melt  copper,  100  ;  then  add  separately 
and  by  degrees,  in  powder,  magnesia  6  ;  sal-ammoniac  4|  ; 
quick-lime  J;  tartar  9;  and  stir  half  an  hour — after  which 
add  zinc,  or,  preferably,  tin  17.  Mix  well,  and  continue  the 
fusing  for  35  minutes,  with  the  crucible  well  covered  before 
casting.  This  alloy  does  not  corrode  easily  ;  when  it  does 
tarnish  its  former  brilliancy  can  be  restored  by  dipping  in 
acid  solution.  See  GOLD  ALLOYS. 

Artificial  Stone.— See  STONE. 

Art-work. — This  term  is  usually  employed  to  mould- 
ing fine-art  work,  and  comprises  all  castings  moulded  from 
models  prepared  by  the  sculptor  or  modeller.  Such  cast- 
ings in  the  past  have  invariably  been  cast  in  bronze  and 
kindred  alloys,  but  very  much  of  that  which  enters  into 
both  interior  and  exterior  decoration  is  now  produced  in 
cast  iron.  The  latter  class  of  castings  would  prevail  more 
extensively,  if  the  moulders  with  skill  sufficient  to  produce 
it  were  more  numerous.  The  great  dearth  of  such  artists 
can  only  be  relieved  by  improving  the  education  of  our 
youth,  who  by  all  means  should  be  encouraged  to  cultivate 
a  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  as  well  as  qualify  themselves 
for  its  manipulation  in  the  foundry,  in  institutes  conducted 
for  the  special  benefit  of  apprentices  in  all  branches  of  the 
metal  industries.  See  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  FOR  THE 
MOULDER  ;  MODELLING  ;  STATUE-FOUNDING. 

Asbestos. — A  mineral  of  white  or  gray  color,  appear- 
ing almost  like  a  vegetable  substance,  because  of  its  fibrous, 
flexible,  and  delicate  texture.  It  is  incombustible,  and  the 
ancients  wove  it  into  cloth  in  which  to  preserve  the  ashes 


Ashes.  36  Assay. 

of  bodies  burned  on  the  funeral  pyre.  There  are  other 
varieties  of  this  mineral,  all  of  which  pertain  to  the  different 
species  of  hornblende,  and  consist  chiefly  of  silica,  magnesia, 
lime,  and  oxide  of  iron.  Its  uses  for  manufacture  into  in- 
combustible material  have  now  become  too  numerous  for 
mention  here.  See  REFRACTORY  MATERIALS. 

Ashes  is  what  remains  of  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stance after  burning  with  free  access  of  air.  The  ashes  of 
organic  substances  consist  of  the  fixed  salts  contained  in 
them — land-plants  yielding  salts  of  potash,  etc.,  and  sea- 
plants  soda,  with  some  iodine.  Turf  contains  alkalies  and 
some  sand ;  so  also  does  coal,  with  the  addition  of  some 
iron  occasionally.  See  POTASH  ;  ALKALIES. 

Asphalt'iim. — This  substance  resembles  pitch,  but 
has  a  higher  internal  polish,  and  is  sometimes  called 
mineral  -  pitch,  bitumen,  etc.  ;  it  breaks  with  a  polish, 
melts  easily,  and  when  pure  burns  and  leaves  no  ashes. 
Anciently,  it  was  only  procurable  from  Lake  Asplialites 
(Dead  Sea),  in  Judea,  for  which  reason  it  is  sometimes 
also  called  Jews'  pitch.  It  formed  a  building  cement  for 
the  Babylonians,  and  is  now  much  used  in  flooring,  roofing, 
paving,  etc.  See  PETROLEUM  ;  BITUMEN". 

Assay. — The  determination  of  the  quantity  of  any  par- 
ticular metal  in  an  ore,  alloy,  or  other  metallic  compound, 
more  especially  of  the  quantity  of  gold  or  silver  in  coin  or 
bullion.  It  differs  from  analysis  thus  :  The  component 
parts  of  the  mineral  or  alloy  are,  by  analysis,  separated,  and 
an  estimate  made  of  their  respective  quantities  ;  while  by 
assay,  it  is  only  the  valuable  metals  that  are  sought  for  ;  as, 
in  the  case  of  silver  and  gold  alloys  the  inferior  metals  are 
dispersed,  the  quantity  being  determined  by  the  loss  of 
weight.  A  gold  alloy  is  assayed  by  obtaining  a  certain 


Atmosphere.  37  Axis. 

number  of  grains,  which,  after  being  carefully  weighed,  are 
wrapped  in  sheet-lead  and  exposed  to  intense  heat  in  a 
cupel  placed  under  a  muffle.  Cupels  for  this  purpose  must 
be  very  porous,  and  are  simply  a  small  block  with  a  cavity 
on  the  upper  side  to  receive  the  metal.  When  fusion  takes 
place,  the  lead  is  converted  into  a  vitreous  oxide,  which, 
acting  as  a  flux,  acts  powerfully  to  oxidize  and  vitrify  the 
inferior  metals  contained  in  the  alloy,  which  being  changed, 
are  absorbed  by  the  porous  cupel,  leaving  a  globule  of  un- 
oxidable  metal  behind.  The  globule  will  be  silver  or  gold, 
or  a  compound  of  both,  which  may  be  separated  by  the 
method  shown  at  "  Separating  Metals  from  their  Alloys." 
Another  method  of  assaying  is  described  at  "Touch- 
needle."  See  MUFFLE. 

Atmosphere.— See  AIR;  THERMOMETER. 

Avoirdupois  Weight. — The  system  of  weights  and 
measures  for  all  goods  except  precious  metals  and  gems, 
the  grain  being  the  foundation  of  this  as  in  the  case  of 
Troy  weight.  The  weight  of  one  cubic  inch  of  water  is 
252.458  grains,  and  7000  of  these  grains  make  one  pound 
avoirdupois,  and  5.760  a  pound  troy.  The  pound  is 
divided  into  16  ounces,  and  the  ounce  into  16  drachms.  The 
hundred-weight  is,  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States, 
simply  100  pounds  avoirdupois,  and  the  ton  20  of  such 
hundredths,  or  2000  pounds. 

Axis  is  the  straight  line  about  which  a  plane  figure 
revolves  so  as  to  produce  or  generate  a  solid;  or,  it  is  a 
straight  line  drawn  from  the  vertex  of  a  figure  to  the 
middle  of  the  base.  The  axis  of  a  sphere  or  circle  is  a 
straight  line  passing  through  the  centre  and  terminating 
at  the  circumference  on  the  opposite  sides. 

In   founding,  the  spindle  is  an  axis   around   or  upon 


Babbitt  Metal.  38  Backing. 

which  a  sweep-board  revolves  to  produce  a  solid,  as  a  core 
by  using  the  sweep's  inner  edge.  When  the  outer  edge  of 
the  sweep  is  used  it  forms  an  inclosing  surface,  or  cope. 
See  SPINDLE. 


B. 

Babbitt  Metal. — To  make  this  composition,  melt 
copper  4;  then  add  gradually  tin  12,  antimony  8,  and  a 
further  addition  of  tin  12.  When  about  4  or  5  pounds 
of  the  final  addition  of  tin  has  been  added  the  heat  may 
be  reduced  to  a  dull  red,  and  the  remainder  added.  Or, 
the  copper,  tin,  and  antimony  may  be  melted  first  in  sepa- 
rate crucibles;  then  poured  together  into  one  vessel  and  the 
final  addition  of  tin  introduced. 

The  above  is  a  hardening.  For  lining  take  1  pound 
of  hardening  and  melt  it  along  with  2  pounds  of  tin, 
which  produces  the  lining  metal  for  use.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  resultant  mixture  contains:  copper  4,  tin  96,  anti- 
mony 8.  Banca-tin  and  the  best  quality  of  copper  and 
antimony  is  to  be  employed  when  it  is  desired  to  make 
good  antifriction  metal.  See  ANTIFRICTION  METALS;  ALU- 
MINUM. 

Back. — An  abbreviation  for  "  Draw-back."  See  DRAW- 
BACK. 

Backing  out  is  the  method  of  producing  a  pat- 
tern or  casting,  equal  in  thickness  all  over,  from  a  carved 
wooden  block  or  a  rough  plaster-cast.  The  backing  out  of 
such  blocks  by  the  moulder  saves  much  carving,  and  will 
ordinarily  produce  a  more  regular  thickness  throughout. 
The  method  is  as  follows :  two  copes  are  pinned  to  fit  one 
nowel,  the  block  is  set  face  up  in  one  of  them,  and  an  extra 
hard  impression  obtained  in  the  nowel.  This  impression 


Bag.  39  Bail. 

is  then  transferred  to  the  same  cope;  also  rammed  extra 
hard,  and  when  lifted  laid  face  up  on  the  floor— after  which 
the  block  is  drawn  from  the  nowal  and  thicknessed  with 
a  suitably  prepared  layer  of  clay.  The  parting  is  then  pre- 
pared and  the  impression  taken  in  the  second  cope  in  a 
proper  manner  for  casting,  as  this  is  the  mould-surface  or 
back  of  the  intended  object  to  be  cast.  It  only  remains  to 
return  the  block  into  the  first  cope,  and,  after  removing 
the  first  hard-rammed  nowel-mould,  return  the  flask  to 
receive  the  final  impression,  which,  in  this  instance  must  be 
rammed  with  the  customary  care,  as  this  forms  the  front 
or  face.  Both  cope  and  nowel  are  by  this  means  obtained 
from  the  first  cope,  and  must  as  a  consequence  be  a  perfect 
match  at  the  parting,  the  space  formed  by  the  clay  answer- 
ing to  the  design  back  and  front. 

If  it  is  desired  to  accomplish  this  by  casting  the  moulds 
face  up,  the  block  is  placed  in  the  nowel  face  up,  and  a 
correct  parting,  made  very  hard,  formed  all  round  it.  The 
first  receives  the  intended  mould-impression,  after  which 
the  second  cope  is  rammed  extra  hard  thereon,  so  that  a 
hard  working-face  may  be  obtained  on  which  to  lay  the 
clay  thickness.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  nowel  proper; 
and  when  the  latter  has  been  duly  rammed  and  the  whole 
reversed,  the  dummy  cope  is  removed,  clay  lifted  out, 
mould  finished,  and  the  previously  rammed  first  cope 
placed  over  it.  As  in  the  former  case,  the  partings  in  both 
nowel  and  cope  are  obtained  from  one  original,  and  must  con- 
sequently match.  SeeTmcKNESSiNG;  KETTLES;  STATUE- 
FOUNDING. 

Bag. — See  BLACKING-BAG. 

Bail. — The  arched  iron  yoke,  provided  with  journals, 
in  which  the  ladle  is  suspended  whilst  pouring.  See 
LADLE. 


Baking. 


40 


Bar. 


Baking.— A  term  used  in  some  localities  in  relation 
to  the  process  of  drying  cores  or  moulds  in  the  oven.  See 
OVEK. 

Balls. — The  following  table  gives  the  weight  of  cast- 
iron,  copper,  brass,  and  lead  balls  from  1  to  12  inches 
diameter.  To  obtain  the  weight  of  balls  larger  in  diameter 
than  is  given  in  the  table,  ascertain  the  number  of  cubic 
inches  contained  in  the  sphere  by  multiplying  the  cube  of 
its  diameter  by  .5236;  then  multiply  by  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  inch  of  the  metal  composing  the  ball,  as  follows  : 

For  cast-iron  and  tin,  multiply  the  total  cubic  inches, 
as  found  by  the  above  rule,  by  .263,  and  the  product  will 
be  the  weight  in  pounds. 

For  copper,  multiply  the  total  cubic  inches  by  .317. 

For  brass,  multiply  the  total  cubic  inches  by  .282. 

For  lead,  multiply  the  total  cubic  inches  by  .410. 

TABLE  SHOWING  WEIGHT  OF  CAST  IRON,  COPPER, 
BRASS,  AND  LEAD  BALLS  FROM  1  TO  12  INCHES 
DIAMETER. 


Dia. 

Cast 
Iron. 

Cop- 
per. 

Brass. 

Lead. 

Dia. 

Cast 
Iron. 

Cop- 
per. 

Brass. 

Lead. 

1 

.136 

.166 

.158 

.214 

7 

46.76 

57.1 

54.5 

73.7 

H 

.46 

.562 

.537 

.727 

ft 

57.52 

70.0 

67.11 

90.0 

2 

1.09 

1.3 

1.25 

1.7 

8 

69.81 

85.2 

81.4 

110.1 

2* 

2.13 

2.60 

2.50 

3.85 

8* 

83.73 

102.3 

100.0 

132.3 

3 

3.68 

4.5 

4.3 

5.8 

9 

99.4 

121.3 

115.9 

156.7 

II 

5.84 

7.14 

6  82 

9.23 

9J 

116.9 

143.0 

136.4 

184.7 

4 

8.72 

10.7 

10.2 

13.8 

10 

136.35 

166.4 

159.0 

215.0 

4} 

12.42 

15.25 

14.5 

19.6 

10J 

157.84 

193.0 

184.0 

250.0 

5 

17.04 

20.8 

19.9 

26.9 

11 

181.48 

221.8 

211.8 

286.7 

5J 

23.68 

27.74 

26.47 

36.0 

HI 

207.37 

253.5 

242.0 

327.7 

6 

29.45 

35.9 

34.3 

46.4 

12 

235.62 

288.1 

275.0 

372.3 

61 

37.44 

45.76 

43.67 

59.13 

Bar. — A  flask  consists  of  sides,  ends,  and  bars  (cross- 
bars). The  latter  connect  the  sides,  and  form  spaces  in 
which  rammed  sand  is  held  securely.  When  flnsks  exceed 


Bar-iron.  41  Basic  Process. 

a  certain  size,  the  sand's  adhesiveness  is  insufficient  for  its 
own  support:  it  is  then  that  bars  are  introduced  to  lessen 
the  space,  and  thus  restore  their  usefulness;  in  other  words 
a  large  flask  with  bars  is  simply  a  number  of  narrow  flasks, 
side  by  side,  and  raised  a  little  higher  than  the  sides  to 
admit  of  a  sand  junction  being  made  underneath,  and  thus 
secure  a  continuous  sand  surface.  See  FLASKS. 

Bar  Iron    See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 
Barium.     See  STRONTIUM. 
Barrel.     See  TUMBLING-BARREL;  CORE-BARREL. 
Barrow.    See  WHEELBARROW. 

Basalt. — A  rock  of  igneous  origin,  usually  of  a  dark 
green  or  blackish  color,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  minerals 
augite  and  feldspar,  with  grains  of  magnetic  or  titanic  iron. 
It  occurs  amorphous,  tabular,  or  globular,  but,  as  in  the 
Giant's  Causeway,  Ireland,  it  is  usually  columnar.  See 
AMORPHOUS. 

Base-plate.    See  FOUNDATION-PLATE. 

Basic  Process. — A  process  of  making  steel  by  blow- 
ing the  metal  in  converters  lined  with  dolomite  in  place  of 
gannister,  as  in  the  Bessmer  process.  Dolomite  is  a  mag- 
nesian  limestone,  which,  being  well  burned  and  ground,  is 
mixed  with  tar  to  give  it  consistency.  This  can  then  be 
rammed  in  the  converters,  or  pressed  into  bricks  for  lin- 
ing with.  This  basic  lining  absorbs  some  of  the  phos- 
phorous present  in  the  iron,  the  rest  being  taken  up  by  the 
lime,  which  constitutes  about  15  per  cent  of  the  charge, 
and  is  introduced  before  the  molten  iron  enters  the  con- 


Basin.  42  Beach  sand. 

verier.     See  BESSEMER  STEEL;  CONVERTER;  GANNISTER; 
DOLOMITE. 

Basin  is  sometimes  termed  a  pour  ing -basin,  or  run- 
ner, and  is  a  suitably  formed  reservoir  constructed 
with  sand  within  a  wood  or  iron  box-frame.  Its  purpose 
is  to  receive  the  metal  from  the  pouring-ladle,  and  con- 
nection with  the  mould  is  made  by  down-runners,  which 
lead  from  its  lowest  part,  either  to  the  mould  direct,  or  to 
some  system  of  runners  which  lead  to  it.  See  DOWN-GATE; 
GATES;  RUNNER;  BASIN. 

Bath.    See  TINNING;  TIN-PLATE. 

Bath-metal. — A  cheap  jewelry  alloy,  composed  of 
brass  32,  zinc  9.  See  TOMBAC. 

Bauxite. — A  ferric  oxide,  usually  containing  alumina 
50.4,  sesquioxide  of  iron  26.1,  water  23.5.  Some  samples 
have  more  silica  and  less  iron.  The  purest  is  called  alu- 
minum ore,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  that  metal. 
It  is  very  refractory,  being  practically  infusible,  although 
containing  over  20  per  cent  of  iron  oxide,  while  4  or  5  per 
cent  of  the  latter  in  some  clays  renders  them  easily  fusible. 
Bauxite  bricks  are  made  by  adding  about  8  per  cent  of  clay 
and  plumbago  for  binding  to  the  calcined  bauxite,  the  re- 
sult being  that  as  soon  as  intense  heat  is  applied  the 
plumbago  partially  reduces  the  iron  and  the  brick  is 
rendered  practically  infusible.  These  bricks  -are  more 
durable  than  ordinary  fire-bricks,  will  resist  the  most 
intense  heat  as  well  as  the  action  of  basic  slags.  They 
also  become  harder  with  use.  See  FIRE-BRICK;  REFRAC- 
TORY MATERIALS. 

Beach-sand.— See  WHITE-SAND. 


Bead-slickers.  43  Bed. 

Bead-slickers.— Tools  maae  expressly  for  smooth- 
ing the  surface  of  bead-mouldings.  See  SLICKER. 

Beam. — The  foundry  lifting-beam  consists  of  a  rec- 
tangular beam  of  wrought  or  cast  iron,  or  wood,  mounted 
with  straps  and  ring  to  hang  central  in  the  block-hook  of 
a  crane.  Notches  sunk  at  equal  intervals  from  each  end 
allow  of  a  balanced  lift  being  taken  with  a  pair  of  slings 
which  fit  the  beam  at  one  end  and  the  flask-trunnions  at 
the  other,  by  which  means  the  flask  can  be  turned  clear 
over  before  it  is  rested.  By  means  of  beam-hooks,  chains 
may  be  hitched  at  any  number  of  places  along  the  sides. 
See  SLINGS  ;  BEAM-HOOK. 

A  sound  oak  beam  would  require  to  measure  four  times 
the  thickness  of  cast-iron  to  be  of  equal  strength. 

The  table  at  page  44  will  be  found  of  great  service  when 
it  is  desired  to  construct  a  cast-beam  for  the  purpose  as 
described  above,  or  for  any  other  purpose  for  which  cast 
iron  beams  are  applicable. 

Beam-hook. — A  link-hook  to  slide  along  the  beam 
to  any  required  notch,  the  hook  serving  to  suspend  the 
chain  for  lifting  with.  See  BEAM. 

Beam-sling. — A  sling  with  its  upper  end  forged  to 
fit  the  beam  used,  the  lower  end  being  made  to  two  diame- 
ters; the  larger  one  for  passing  over  the  collar  of  the  trun- 
nion, the  smaller  to  fit  the  body  of  the  same.  See  SLING  ; 
BEAM  ;  TRUNNION. 

Bearing. — See  CORE-PRINT  ;  SEATING. 

Bed. — A  term  applied  to  numerous  things  occurring  in 
foundry  practice.  When  a  prepared  surface  is  formed  in 
the  floor  on  which  to  lay  the  pattern  it  is  usually  called  a 


Table. 


44 


Table. 


TABLE, 
SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  on  PRESSURE  A  BEAM  OF  CAST  IRON,  1 

INCH    IN   BREADTH,    WILL    SUSTAIN,   WITHOUT    DESTROYING    ITS 

ELASTIC  FORCE,  WHEN  IT  IS  SUPPORTED  AT  EACH  END  AND 
LOADED  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  ITS  LENGTH,  AND  ALSO  THE  DE- 
FLECTION IN  THE  MIDDLE  WHICH  THAT  WEIGHT  WILL  PRODUCE. 
BY  MR.  HODGKINSON,  MANCHESTER. 


Length 

6  feet. 

7  feet. 

8  feet. 

9  feet. 

10  feet. 

Depth 
in  In. 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 

Defl. 
in  In. 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 

Defl 
in  In 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 

Defl 
in  In. 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 

Defl. 
in  In. 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 

Defl. 
iuln. 

3 

1,278 

.24 

1,089 

.33 

954 

.426 

855 

.54 

765 

.66 

31 

1,739 

.205 

1,482 

.28 

1,298 

.365 

1,164 

.46 

1,041 

.57 

4 

2,272 

.18 

1,936 

.245 

1,700 

.32 

1,520 

.405 

1,360 

.5 

4* 

2,875 

.16 

2,450 

.217 

2,146 

.284 

1,924 

.36 

1,721 

.443 

5 

3,560 

.144 

3,050 

.196 

2,650 

.256 

2,375 

.32 

2,125 

.4 

6 

5,112 

.12 

4,356 

.163 

3,816 

.213 

3,420 

.27 

3,060 

33 

7 

6,958 

.103 

5,929 

.14 

5,194 

.183 

4,655 

.23 

4,165 

.29 

8 

9,088 

.09 

7,744 

.123 

6,784 

.16 

6,080 

.203 

5,440 

.25 

9 

9,801 

.109 

8,586 

.142 

7,695 

.18 

6,885 

.22 

10 

12,100 

.098 

10,600 

.128 

9,500 

.162 

8,500 

.2 

11 

12,826 

.117 

11.495 

.15 

10,285 

.182 

12 

15,264 

.107 

13,680 

.135 

12,240 

.17 

13 

16,100 

.125  14,400 

.154 

14 

18,600 

.115 

16,700 

.143 

1§  feet. 

14  feet. 

16  feet. 

18  feet. 

20  feet. 

6 

2,548 

.48 

2,184 

.65 

1,912 

.85 

1,699 

1.08 

1,530 

1.34 

7 

3,471 

.41 

2,975 

.58 

2,603 

.73 

2,314 

.93 

2,082 

1.14 

8 

4,532 

.36 

3,884 

.49 

3,396 

.64 

3,020 

.81 

2,720 

1.00 

9 

5,733 

.32 

4,914 

.44 

4,302 

.57 

3,825 

.72 

3,438 

.89 

10 

7,083 

.28 

6,071 

.39 

5,312 

.51 

4,722 

.64 

4,250 

.8 

11 

8,570 

.26 

7,346 

.36 

6,428 

.47 

5,714 

.59 

5,142 

.73 

12 

10,192 

.24 

8,736 

.33 

7,648 

.43 

6,796 

.54 

6,120 

.67 

13 

11,971 

.22 

10,260 

.81 

8,978 

.39 

7,980 

.49 

7,182 

.61 

14 

13.883 

.21 

11,900 

.28 

10,412 

36 

9,255 

.46 

8,330 

.57 

15 

15,937 

.19 

13,660 

.26 

11,952 

.34 

10,624 

.43 

9,562 

.53 

16 

18,128 

.18 

15,536 

.24 

13,584 

.32 

12,080 

.40 

10,880 

.5 

17 

20,500 

.17 

17,500 

.23 

15,353 

.30 

13,647 

.38 

12,282 

.47 

18 

22,932 

.16 

19,656 

.21 

17,208 

.28 

15,700 

.36 

13,752 

.44 

NOTE.— This  table  shows  the  greatest  weight  that  ever  ought  to  be  laid  upon 
a  beam  for  permanent  load;  and  if  there  be  any  liability  to  jerks,  etc.,  ample 
allowance  must  be  made;  also,  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself  must  be  included. 


Bed  board  45  Bedding-block. 

bottom  bed.  Sand  that  has  been  rammed  on  the  bottom  of 
a  cupola  or  furnace,  for  the  molten  metal  to  rest  upon,  is 
the  cupola,  or  furnace-bed.  Open  sand-plates  are  cast  on 
beds,  constructed  by  means  of  two  straight-edges, — a  parallel 
straight-edge  and  a  level, — thus :  one  straight-edge  is 
packed  until  it  agrees  with  the  level ;  the  other  is  the  set 
at  the  required  distance,  and,  by  means  of  the  parallel 
straight-edge,  each  of  its  ends  are  made  to  agree  with  the 
level,  the  proof  of  which  is  obtained  by  trying  the  level  on 
the  second  straight-edge,  when  the  level  will  be  exact  if 
the  operation  has  been  correctly  performed.  The  sand 
within  the  straight-edges  is  then  brought  to  the  requisite 
density,  extending  some  little  above,  when  another  straight- 
edge, long  enough  to  reach  across,  will  serve  to  strike  off 
the  superfluous  sand  and  leave  a  bed  that  will  be  level  in 
every  direction.  See  BEDDING-IN;  SAND-BED;  LEVEL; 
STRICKLE. 

Bed-board.— A  board  on  which  to  ram  the  nowal 
part  when  the  bed  is  formed  by  the  method  of  rolling-over 
(see  ROLLING-OVER).  It  may  be  of  iron,  wood,  or  plaster, 
with  dimensions  corresponding  to  outer  edges  of  the 
flask  used.  Besides  presenting  a  surface  which  accurately 
matches  the  upper  side  of  the  pattern,  to  prevent  any 
possibility  of  the  pattern  being  rammed  out  of  shape,  it 
must  be  made  strong  enough  to  lift  the  body  of  sand  con- 
tained, when  bed-board,  nowal,  and  bottom-board  arc 
secured  together  for  rolling-over  ;  as  any  deflection  will 
irretrievably  destroy  what  would  otherwise  have  been  a 
correct  impress  of  the  pattern.  See  FOLLOW-BOARD  ; 
TURNOVER-BOARD  ;  BOTTOM-BOARD. 

Bedding-block.—  A  block  of  hard  wood,  with  a 
smooth  under  surface  and  rounded  edges,  for  bedding- 
down  patterns  with  the  hammer.  This  block  should  be 


Beddingin.  46  Beer. 

of  such  dimensions  and  shape  as  will  be  least  likely  to 
damage  the  pattern  when  struck  with  the  hammer.  See 
BEDDING-IN. 

Bedding-in. — One  process  for  obtaining  an  impres- 
sion in  the  sand,  of  the  lower  or  under  side  of  the  pattern. 
Simple  objects  may  be  pressed,  or  hammered  into  a  suit- 
ably prepared  soft  bed  of  sand,  while  those  of  a  more  com- 
plex nature  must  have  the  sand  tucked  with  the  hand,  or 
forced  with  small  rammers  into  remote  parts ;  supplement- 
ing these  operations  by  effectual  ramming  with  the  ordi- 
n&rj  peen  and  butt-rammers — which  operation  extends  to 
all  parts  of  the  hole  or  pit  in  which  the  mould  is  being 
prepared.  Should  this  be  neglected,  the  inside  pressure, 
when  the  mould  is  cast,  will  press  the  surface  back  into 
the  soft  parts  and  a  swelled,  uneven  surface  will  result. 

This  process  may,  in  some  instances,  be  simplified  and 
made  more  effective  by  suitably  dividing  the  pattern  and 
ramming  each  piece  separate,  from  the  bottom  upwards. 
Again,  it  may  be  found  convenient  to  form  some  portion,  if 
not  all  of  the  bed,  by  extemporized  strickles  and  guides 
before  lowering  on  the  pattern  for  a  final  ramming.  See 
HAMMING  ;  VENTING  ;  TUCKING  ;  TRAMPING. 

Bed-fuel  is  the  fuel  resting  on  the  sand  -  bed  or 
bottom  of  the  cupola  and  immediately  preceding  the  first 
charge  of  iron,  the  amount  of  which  is  regulated  according 
to  the  diameter  of  the  cupola  and  the  depth  of  the  bottom. 
If  coal  be  the  fuel  used,  about  15  inches  above  the  tuyeres 
would  be  sufficient  for  bed-fuel,  and  about  22  inches  for 
coke.  See  CUPOLA;  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Beer. — Owing  to  the  hardening  influence  of  the  gluten, 
starch,  albumen,  etc.,  contained  in  beer,  the  bottoms  of 
barrels,  and  sometimes  the  beer  itself,  was  formerly  used 


Bees- wax.  47  Bell- founding. 

extensively  for  hardening  the  surface  of  cores  and  moulds, 
being  sprinkled  thereon  before  they  were  placed  in  the 
oven  to  dry.  It  has,  however,  been  to  a  great  extent 
superseded  by  molasses- water,  glue-water,  and  the  very 
numerous  patented  core-washes  which  may  now  be  obtained 
from  the  foundry-supply  dealers.  See  CORE-SAND;  CORE- 
WASH;  MOLASSES;  GLUE. 

Bees-wax. — An  excellent  substance  for  coating  iron 
patterns  with,  to  prevent  the  sand  from  adhering  thereto. 
To  prepare  the  patterns,  let  them  be  well  finished,  and 
sprinkled  with  dilute  acid;  after  which,  when  rusted  in 
the  atmosphere,  they  can  be  cleaned,  heated,  and  the  wax 
applied  while  hot,  spreading  it  evenly  over  the  surface 
with  a  brush.  See  WAX. 

Bell-founding.— The  founding  of  bells  is  practically 
the  same  as  for  any  other  similar  object,  as  pans,  kettles, 
domes,  etc.  Large  ones  are  usually  made  in  loam  by  first 
striking  a  core,  by  means  of  a  centre-spindle  and  sweep- 
board,  the  latter  corresponding  to  the  inner  dimensions 
and  form  of  the  bell  to  be  cast.  When  this  has  firmly  set, 
another  sweep-board  answering  to  the  outer  contour  of  the 
bell  is  secured  to  the  spindle,  and  a  thickness  of  sand 
formed  on  the  core;  after  which  such  ornamentation  as 
may  be  required  is  secured  thereon  and  a  cope  is  built 
around,  of  such  strength  as  the  magnitude  of  the  bell 
demands.  The  subsequent  operations  consist  of  lifting  off 
the  cope,  taking  away  the  thickness,  finishing  the  moulds, 
drying,  and  closing  in  the  pit  as  for  any  other  casting. 

For  the  common  run  of  bells  a  more  ready  way  is  pro- 
vided. These  are  invariably  made  in  perforated  cast-iron 
casings,  which  enable  the  founder  to  strike  both  core  and 
cope  separately,  closing  them  together  when  dry,  binding 
and  casting  without  any  subsequent  labor  of  ramming. 


Bell-metal.  48  Bellows. 

The  core-casing  should  be  small  enough  to  allow  a  wrapping 
of  straw  before  applying  the  loam.  The  rope  burns  away 
and  leaves  ample  room  for  contraction.  See  CASINGS; 
KETTLES;  SPINDLE. 

Bell-metal. — The  alloys  for  large  bells  are  now  as 
various  as  those  for  small  ones.  It  was  formerly  considered 
that  copper  75,  tin  25,  was  the  best  for  all  large  bells,  but 
it  is  claimed  by  many  that  copper  80,  tin  20,  is  better. 
Many  church-bells  are  successfully  cast  from  either  of  the 
above  proportions.  The  following  proportions  are  about 
correct:  Extra  large  bells:  copper  16,  tin  5.  Church  and 
large  bells:  copper  16,  tin  4^.  House-bells:  copper  16,  tin 
4.  Gongs,  cymbals,  etc.:  copper  16,  tin  3J.  Soft  musical 
bells :  copper  16,  tin  3. 

Another  composition  introducing  zinc  and  lead  for 
church-bells  is:  copper  80,  tin  10,  zinc  5.6,  lead  4.6. 
Clock-bells  are  also  made  from:  copper  72.0,  tin  26.5,  iron 
1.5.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  small  proportion  of  iron  enters 
into  the  latter  alloy;  this  is  common  with  some  founders, 
and  zinc  and  lead  form  no  mean  proportion  in  the  cheaper 
class  of  small  bells. 

Lafond's  mixture  for  small  bells  and  piano-plates  is: 
copper  77,  tin  21,  antimony  2.  This  alloy  is  yellowish 
white,  and  can  be  filed  only  with  difficulty. 

A  French  bell-metal  for  hand,  clock,  and  other  similar- 
sized  bells  is:  copper  55  to  60,  tin  30  to  40,  zinc  10  to  15. 
See  ALLOY;  BRASS;  JAPANESE  BRONZE-WORK. 

Bellows. — These  wind-machines  for  foundry  use  are 
somewhat  after  the  pattern  of  those  used  in  the  home, 
except  that  they  are  usually  provided  with  hinges  and 
made  strong.  The  common  ones  are  used  for  blowing  away 
superfluous  parting  sand  off  the  patterns,  and  loose  sand 
and  blackening  out  of  the  moulds.  Bellows  for  the  bench 


Belt-core.  49  Bend  pipe. 

are  made  without  spout  and  somewhat  shorter.  Special 
bellows,  for  distributing  blackening  upward  where  it  can- 
not be  applied  with  the  bag,  are  now  made;  as  also  are 
sprinkling-bellows  for  saturating  the  mould,  where  neces- 
sary, with  water,  etc. 

Belt-core. — It  is  common  to  call  almost  any  descrip- 
tion of  jacket-core  by  this  name.  See  JACKET-CORE. 

Belts  for  cores. — Leather-belting  makes  very  reli- 
able and  handy  slings  for  lifting  cores,  but,  owing  to  the 
very  inferior  means  usually  provided  for  binding  the  ends 
together  when  in  use,  very  much  of  their  reliability  and 
usefulness  is  marred.  If  very  thin  steel  ends  are  riveted 
on,  all  this  annoyance  is  obviated.  The  steel,  ^  inch  in 
thickness,  must  be  just  as  wide  as  the  belt,  and  as  short  as 
is  consistent  with  safety.  The  ends,  being  both  turned 
with  a  very  short  "  U,"  interlock  each  other. 

Bench-moulder. — A  moulder,  whose  work  being  of 
a  light  description,  can  perform  all  the  operations  required 
for  producing  it  in  small  wooden  or  iron  flasks,  standing 
up  to  his  work  at  a  suitably  provided  bench.  See  SNAP- 
MOULDER. 

Bench-rammer. — A  short  wooden  rammer  used  by 
the  bench-moulder.  It  has  just  space  sufficient  between 
the  butt  and  peen  ends  for  the  hand  to  grasp  it.  It  is 
common  for  the  moulder  to  use  one  in  each  hand. 

Bend-pipe. — A  common  name  for  all  classes  of 
curved  pipes  that  are  not  distinctively  elbows.  The 
moulding  of  such  pipes  demands  the  attention  of  moulder 
and  pattern-maker  more  than  any  other,  simply  because 
the  constantly  varying  curves  required  make  it  impossible 


Benzine.  50  Bin. 

to  keep  a  stock  of  patterns  on  hand  for  the  purpose. 
Hence,  all  manner  of  devices  for  moulding  are  resorted  to, 
to  save  pattern-making,  and,  at  the  same  time,  obtain  a 
good  casting.  See  JOBBING-MOULDER  ;  LOAM-PATTERN  ; 
TOUCH. 

Benzine. — A  limpid,  oily  fluid,  resembling  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. It  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  formed 
during  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal.  It  readily  dis- 
solves caoutchouc,  gutta-percha,  wax,  camphor,  and  fats, 
and  is  useful  for  removing  grease-spots  from  silk  and 
woollen.  See  TAR. 

Beryl.  —  A  mineral  of  great  hardness  occurring  in 
green  and  bluish-green  six-sided  prisms.  It  is  ranked 
among  the  gems,  and  is  nearly  identical  with  emerald,  but 
is  not  so  brilliant  in  color.  It  is  infusible;  with  borax  it 
fuses  into  a  transparent  glass.  Its  composition  is  :  si  lex  68, 
alumina  15,  glucine  14,  lime  2,  oxide  of  iron  1.  See  EM- 
ERALD; PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Bessemer  Steel. — This  process  of  making  steel  was 
patented  in  1856  by  the  inventor,  Henry  Bessemer,  and 
consists  in  converting  the  pig-iron  into  malleable  iron,  as 
a  preliminary  operation,  by  blowing  air  through  the  mass 
of  molted  metal,  previously  introduced  into  a  converter, 
until  all  the  carbon,  silicon,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus  has 
been  burned  out,  and  then  converting  this  into  steel  by 
the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  a  peculiar  cast  iron  of 
known  composition,  called  Spiegeleisen.  See  CONVERTER; 
SPIEGELEISEN;  CAST  STEEL;  OPEN-HEARTH  STEEL. 

Bin. — A  wood  or  iron  box  for  storing  charcoal,  sea-coal, 
lead,  flour,  or  any  other  commodity  used  in  the  foundry. 
The  providing  of  such  repositories  effects  a  considerable 


Binding  plates.  51  Bismuth. 

saving  over  the  too  common  practice  of  having  such  things 
loose  around  the  foundry  in  barrels. 

Binding-plates. — Thin  plates  cast  by  the  loam- 
moulder  to  .strengthen  weak  walls  in  copes  and  cores  built 
with  bricks.  They  are  bedded,  at  intervals,  on  soft  loam 
and  the  building  continued  over  them.  A  slot  or  open- 
ing on  one  side  allows  of  their  being  set  without  removing 
the  spindle.  If,  when  the  slot  is  made,  they  should  be 
considered  too  weak,  extending  lugs  at  that  point  will 
serve  to  clamp  or  bolt  them  fast,  after  they  have  passed 
the  spindle  and  are  bedded  in  place.  For  cores,  the  lugs 
are  internal;  for  copes,  external.  They  are  often  called 
building  -  rings.  See  COURSE  ;  BRICKING  -  UP  ;  LOAM- 
MOULDING;  HOOP-BINDER. 

Binder. — The  name  given  to  almost  every  device  used 
in  the  foundry  for  binding  moulds  together  before  cast- 
ing, but  in  particular  to  the  beams  which  rest  over  the 
copes  of  green  and  dry-sand  moulds,  as  well  as  the  covering- 
plates  of  loam-moulds,  by  which  the  upper  portions  of  the 
moulds  are  made  secure  to  the  lower  by  means  of  clamps 
or  bolts,  in  order  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  their  being 
raised  by  the  pressure  of  molten  iron  underneath  them. 
See  PRESSURE  OF  MOLTEN  METAL. 

Bismuth.  —  A  somewhat  brittle  metal,  the  color  of 
which  may  be  termed  yellowish-white.  It  is  a  little  harder 
than  lead.  Bismuth  is  found  natural  but  impure  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Europe,  in  the  veins  or  fissures  of  other 
rocks;  also  in  combination  with  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  oxy- 
gen. The  pure  metal  is  obtained  by  heating  the  impure 
metal,  or  native  bismuth,  in  inclined  cast-iron  tubes,  where 
the  metal  is  volatilized  and,  the  vapors  condensing,  run 
into  receiving-vessels,  and  finally  into  moulds,  where  it 
solidifies  with  a  crystalline  texture. 


Bitumen.  52  Bitumen. 

At  a  high  temperature,  bismuth  is  slightly  volatile  and 
oxidizes  rapidly.  Its  fusing-point  is  507°,  but  it  alloys 
with  other  metals  to  form  fusible  mixtures,  which  melt 
even  below  212°. 

The  specific  gravity  of  this  metal  is  9.8. 

The  fusibility  of  other  metals  is  increased  by  bismuth,  and 
its  peculiar  property  of  expanding  while  cooling  makes  it 
highly  valuable  as  an  ingredient  in  type-founders'  alloys. 

A  slight  addition  of  mercury  imparts  greater  fusibility 
to  bismuth  alloys. 

Alloys  containing  bismuth  should  always  be  cooled 
quickly,  to  prevent  the  separation  of  bismuth. 

Gold  alloyed  with  bismuth  forms  a  brassy  composition 
of  a  brittle  nature,  and  the  ductility  of  gold  is  impaired 
even  by  its  fumes. 

It  is  seldom  that  bismuth  is  employed  alone  in  the  arts, 
but  it  forms  an  important  ingredient  in  many  mixtures  for 
solder,  type-metal,  fusible  alloys,  etc. 

Bismuth  is  separated  from  lead  by  dissolving  the  mixed 
metal  in  nitric  acid;  add  caustic  potash  in  excess,  and  the 
oxides  of  bismuth  and  lead  will  be  precipitated,  but  the 
lead  oxide  will  be  at  once  redissolved  by  the  alkali.  The 
oxide  of  bismuth  can  then  be  separated  by  filtration, 
washed,  and  ignited.  See  SOLDERS  ;  TYPE-METAL  ;  FUSI- 
BLE ALLOYS;  SEPARATING  METALS;  EXPANDING  ALLOYS. 

Bitumen. — Besides  coal  there  is  found  in  the  earth  a 
class  of  inflammable  bodies — liquids,  semi -liquids,  and  sol- 
ids— which  possess  properties  very  similar.  The  purest  and 
most  fluid  of  these  hydrocarbons  is  naphtha  ;  when  of  the 
consistence  of  oil  it  is  termed  petroleum, ;  slightly  thicker 
it  is  pitch;  after  which  we  have  elastic  bitumen,  and  in  its 
hardened  state  it  is  called  asplialtum. 

Naphtha  dissolves  bituntfen  and  caoutchouc.  See  PETRO- 
LEUM; ASPHALTUM. 


Bituminous  Coal.  53  Black  Lead. 

Bituminous  Coal. — See  COAL. 
Black-flux.— See  FLUX. 

Blacking. — A  general  name  for  all  classes  of  carbon- 
facings  used  in  foundries.  See  FACING;  BLACK  LEAD; 
CHARCOAL;  GRAPHITE. 

Blacking-bag. — A  coarse  linen  or  worsted  bag  to 
hold  charcoal-dust  or  other  facing,  and  by  means  of  which 
to  distribute  the  same  evenly  over  the  surface  of  green- 
sand  moulds  by  a  process  of  shaking.  The  loose  dust  is 
afterward  pressed  close  by  returning  the  pattern,  or  with 
the  moulder's  tools.  See  FACING;  PRINTING. 

Black  Lead. — The  name  commonly  given  to  plum- 
bago, or  India-silver  lead-facings.  It  is  called  "India 
silver"  because  it  is  mined  in  India,  on  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  and  because  it  yields  a  polish  of  a  silvery  tone. 
The  Jos.  Dixon  Crucible  Company  classify  the  several  kinds 
as  :  Plumbago-facing  for  common  work  ;  German  or  Bo- 
hemian lead  for  flat  moulding;  Ex,  Ex,  plumbago-facing  for 
stove-plate,  printing  and  copying  presses  ;  India-silver  lead 
for  light  and  ordinary  job-moulding ;  "  XX,"  plumbago  for 
heavy  cast-iron  and  steel  castings;  and  Founders'  core-wash 
for  cores,  loam,  and  dry-sand  work — at  prices  from  lOc.  to 
3£c.  per  pound,  in  the  order  given. 

One  kind  works  with  dry  sand,  and  is  used  as  a  wash  ; 
another  works  with  green  sand,  and  through  a  shake  or 
blacking-bag;  still  another,  with  green  sand,  to  be  laid  on 
the  surface  with  a  brush.  Some  facings  require,  for  per- 
fect lines,  a  little  dusting  of  powdered  charcoal.  Some 
brands  will  slick  with  the  tools  ;  others  not — making  it 
necessary  for  the  parties  ordering  these  facings  to  specify 
what  use  they  intend  to  put  them  to.  Such  kinds  as 


Black  Sand.  54  Black  Varnishes. 

admit  of  easy  slicking  on  green-sand  moulds  are  the  most 
useful ;  as  when  this  operation  is  properly  done  with  good 
material,  it  will  neither  burn  nor  run  before  the  molten 
metal,  but  adhere  firmly  to  the  sand  surface,  causing  it  to 
part  clean  from  the  casting,  giving  it  a  uniform  bright 
color.  See  FACING  ;  GRAPHITE. 

Black  Sand  is  sometimes  termed  "old  sand,"  and 
is  the  sand  which  constitutes  what  is  called  the  foundry 
floor.  When  first  introduced  into  the  foundry  the  new 
sand  is  usually  of  a  yellow  or  brownish  color,  sometimes 
red ;  but  by  subsequent  use  for  casting  purposes,  it  be- 
comes burnt,  or  "old."  The  facing  mixtures,  containing 
sea-coal  dust,  is  gradually  insinuated  among  the  floor- 
also  ;  these,  along  with  the  constant  use  of  charcoal  and 
lead-facings,  cause  the  change  in  color  of  the  original  sand. 
For  all  parts  of  thin  castings,  which  are  far  removed  from 
the  gates,  this  old  sand,  if  fine  originally,  is  to  be  preferred 
as  a  facing,  because  the  constant  burning  to  which  it  has 
been  subjected  has  eliminated  all  clayey  and  other  deleter- 
ious ingredients  ;  thus  forming  a  surface  upon  which  the 
molten  iron  will  placidly  rest  free  from  the  disturbing  in- 
fluences of  the  gas-producing  substances  ordinarily  found 
in  new-sand.  See  NEW-SAND  ;  FACING-SAND  ;  FACING. 

Black  Solder.— Copper  32,  zinc  32,  tin  4.  See  SOL- 
DERS. 

Black  Varnishes.— For  patterns,  alcohol  1  gall. ; 
shellac  1  Ib. ;  lamp-black  sufficient  to  color  it.  Let  it 
stand  in  a  warm  place,  and  stir  occasionally. 

For  castings,  tar  oil  20  Ibs.;  asphaltum  5  Ibs.;  powdered 
resin  5  Ibs.  Heat  all  togethe  rin  an  iron  kettle,  and  be 
careful  to  avoid  ignition.  See  VARNISHES. 


Black-wash.  55  Blakney  Cupola. 

Black- wash. — A  refractory  mixture  for  coating  the 
surfaces  of  loam  and  dry-sand  moulds  and  dry-sand  cores, 
to  protect  the  sand  from  burning  by  the  interposition  of  a 
coat  of  carbon  between  it  and  the  molten  metal. 

The  compositions  for  this  purpose  are  various,  but  the 
principal  ingredients  entering  therein  are  charcoal-dust, 
silver  lead,  mineral,  and  hard  Lehigh  blacking  ;  these,  in 
varying  proportions,  are  mixed  with  thin  clay-water  to  a 
suitable  consistency  and  applied  with  a  swab  or  brush, 
See  FACING. 

Blakney  Cupola.  —  The  Blakney  cupola  consists 
principally  of  a  system  of  tuyeres,  by  which,  it  is  claimed, 
the  air  is  so  distributed  or  projected  into  the  furnace  as  to 
produce  a  uniform  heat,  giving  the  iron  a  uniform  strength 
for  all  kinds  of  castings.  The  features  peculiar  to  the 
above  furnace  are  as  follows: 

The  introduction  of  a  combination  of  curved  tuyeres  or 
chutes  placed  upon  the  wall  or  lining  of  the  cupola,  and 
forming  a  part  of  the  wall,  a  proper  distance  from  the 
bottom  and  nearly  surrounding  the  inner  and  outer  sides 
of  the  wall.  The  tuyeres  are  made  of  cast  iron  and  in  sec- 
tions for  convenience  of  handling.  A  blank  space  is  left 
in  the  rear  of  the  cupola  two  feet  wide,  through  which  the 
slag  is  blown,  if  required. 

A  chamber  or  base  extending  around  the  cupola  in- 
closes the  space  in  which  the  air  is  conducted  to  the 
tuyeres.  The  bottom  of  this  chamber,  made  irregular  in 
form,  hollows  at  suitable  intervals  to  allow  the  metal  to 
How  to  the  escape  openings,  in  case  it  overflows  through 
the  tuyeres.  The  openings  are  closed  with  fusible  plugs  of 
lead  or  other  material  to  be  melted  out  by  the  molten 
metal. 

The  blast  is  conducted  to  this  cupola  through  one  pipe, 
and,  striking  the  blank  space  sidewise  in  rear  of  chamber, 


0? 


Blast.  .  56  Blast  gates. 

passes  all  around  through  the  curved  tuyeres  into  the 
centre  of  the  furnace,  the  blast  striking  into  the  cupola 
every  }  of  an  inch  horizontal,  and  3|  inches  perpendicu- 
lar, or  according  to  diameter  of  cupola. 

As  a  producer  of  a  uniform  grade  of  iron  for  the  purpose 
of  casting  car-wheels  it  is  just  what  is  needed  for  the  differ- 
ent grades  of  iron  to  prevent  chill-cracking. 

This  cupola,  with  its  many  superior  advantages,  has  also 
rows  of  shelves  bolted  to  the  shell  four  feet  apart  up  to  the 
top  of  the  charging-door,  so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
tear  out  any  of  the  lining  except  that  which  is  burned  out. 

Blast  is  air  forced  into  a  cupola  or  furnace  by  a  blow- 
ing-engine, blower,  or  fan  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
combustion.  If  heated  it  is  then  called  hot  blast,  and  cold 
blast  when  it  enters  the  cupola  or  furnace  direct  from  the 
atmosphere.  See  CUPOLA  ;  BLOWERS  ;  BLAST-PIPES. 

Blast-furnace. — See  SMELTING-FURNACE  ;  CUPOLA  ; 
CAST  IRON. 

Blast-gates. — The  apparatus  for  opening  and  closing 
pipes  supplying  blast  to  cupolas,  furnaces,  etc.;  for  use  also 
in  exhaust-pipe  systems  where  shavings,  dust,  smoke,  and 
the  like  are  to  be  removed,  or  for  regulating  the  distribu- 
tion of  heated  air. 

The  lever  style  of  blast-gate  can  be  readily  manipulated 
by  cords,  and  is  very  convenient  in  cases  where  it  cannot 
be  reached  otherwise.  The  slide  style  of  blast-gate  is  per- 
haps as  common  as  any.  These  should  always  be  made  of 
metal  and  kept  clean  ;  otherwise  they  become  troublesome 
and  inefficacious.  It  is  very  important  to  know  that  the 
use  of  blast-gates  to  close  pipes,  when  not  in  use,  insures  a 
great  saving  of  power,  as  a  blower  requires  far  less  power  to 
drive  it  with  closed  connections  than  with  open  ones. 


Blast  gauge.  57  Blast  pipe:. 

Blast-gates  are  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  in  sizes 
from  1^  inches  to  30  inches,  small  sizes  being  made  in  com- 
position and  the  larger  ones  in  iron,  and  these  are  always  to 
be  preferred  to  such  as  are  usually  provided  by  the  foundry 
tinker.  See  CUPOLA;  BLAST-PIPES;  BLOWERS. 

Blast-gauge  is  an  apparatus  to  be  attached  to  the 
wind-box  of  a  cupola  for  indicating  the  pressure  in  blast- 
pipes.  They  are  of  simple  construction  and  may  be  pur- 
chased from  the  makers  at  prices  varying  from  $10  to  $15, 
according  to  size  and  degree  of  finish.  Ordinarily,  the  blast- 
gauge  consists  of  a  siphon-tube  with  equal  legs,  half-filled 
with  mercury,  one  end  entering  the  wind-box,  the  other  be- 
ing open  to  the  atmosphere.  A  stop-cock  may  be  provided 
between  this  ga*uge  and  the  wind-box,  so  that  it  may  be  shut 
off  at  pleasure.  When  the  stop-cock  is  open,  the  blast  press- 
ure acting  on  the  mercury  in  one  leg  of  the  gauge  presses 
it  down,  and  the  mercury  in  the  other  leg  rises.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two  columns  is  the  height  of  mercury, 
which  corresponds  to  the  excess  of  the  pressure  of  blast  in 
the  wind-box  above  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  to  the  effective  pressure  of  blast  in  the  blast- 
pipes.  If  16  ounces  be  allowed  for  every  2  inches  of  the 
length  of  this  column,  or  1  ounce  for  every  J  inch,  the 
effective  pressure  of  blast,  in  ounces  per  square  inch,  is 
thus  obtained.  See  CUPOLA;  BLAST-PIPES;  BLOWERS. 

Blast-pipes  are  conducting-pipes  from  the  blower 
to  the  cupola.  These  should  always  be  made  of  iron  and 
perfectly  air-tight,  and  sufficiently  large  to  convey  the  air 
without  undue  loss  by  friction.  When  the  pipes  are  too 
small,  a  greatly  increased  velocity  is  required  to  discharge 
a  given  amount  of  air,  with  a  larger  proportional  increase 
of  fractional  surfaces. 

All  turns  or  elbows  in  conducting-pipes  are  objectionable 


Blast  Pressure.  58  Blister. 

in  the  extreme,  and  should  as  much  as  possible  be  avoided, 
as  from  this  cause  the  direction  of  the  current  is  changed 
and  the  friction  greatly  increased.  Air  moving  through 
blast-pipes  expends  a  portion  of  its  force  in  the  friction  of 
its  particles  along  the  sides  of  the  pipes,  with  a  consequent 
reduction  in  the  pressure. 

In  many  cases  the  blower  may  be  condemned  as  ineffi- 
cent  when  the  pipe  itself  is  the  real  cause  of  the  trouble  by 
reason  of  its  too  small  diameter,  its  great  length,  or  the 
number  of  bends  or  elbows  it  contains.  The  diameter  of 
the  blast-pipe  should  always  be  increased  in  proportion  as 
the  length  is  increased. 

The  main  blast-pipe  for  cupolas  24  to  29  inches  diameter 
should  be  not  less  than  10  inches  diameter,  30  to  33  inches, 
12  inches  diameter  ;  34  to  39  inches,  14  inches  diameter  ; 
40  to  45  inches,  16  inches  diameter  ;  46  to  51  inches,  18 
inches  diameter  ;  52  to  57  inches,  20  inches  diameter  ;  58 
to  70  inches,  22  inches  diameter,  and  24  inches  for  cupola's 
over  70  inches  diameter.  See  CUPOLA;  BLAST;  BLOWER; 
COMBUSTION. 

Blast  Pressure. — The  blast  should  always  be  deliv- 
ered at  a  pressure  sufficient  to  force  its  way  freely  through 
the  whole  contents  of  the  cupola,  and  this  is  effected  in 
cupolas  from  20  to  80  inches  diameter  by  a  pressure  of  from 
5  to  16  ounces  per  square  inch.  See  CUPOLA;  CHARGING 
THE  COMMON  CUPOLA;  BLAST-PIPES. 

Blister. — A  cavity  or  hollow  usually  found  in  the 
upper  surfaces  of  castings.  They  are  imprisoned  gases, 
which,  having  no  means  of  escaping  before  the  metal  con- 
geals, arrange  themselves  in  various  sizes  and  shapes  under 
a  thin  film  of  metal.  They  are  found  sometimes  on  the 
top  side  of  pipes  and  columns,  and  in  this  case  may  be 
caused  by  the  steam  from  a  damp  core,  which,  not  having 


Blistered  Steel.  53  Blistered  Steel. 

a  ready  means  of  escape  through  the  vents,  finds  its  way 
into  the  mould.  Another  fruitful  cause  of  blisters  is  rusty 
chaplets  and  studs,  which  give  off  considerable  gaseous 
compounds  as  the  rust  decomposes.  Blisters  are  almost 
certain  to  ensue  when  a  green  sand  surface,  core,  or  cope 
is  too  damp  or  wet  in  spots.  Should  there  be  no  vents  at 
that  particular  part  to  lead  away  the  steam  as  fast  as  it 
generates,  it  must  inevitably  find  its  way  into  the  mould, 
the  result  being  blisters. 

Sometimes  blisters  are  caused  by  the  sulphurous  gas  con- 
tained in  the  iron  itself,  which,  if  it  once  enter  the  mould, 
acts  exactly  like  the  gases  we  have  noticed  above.  Such 
gas  as  may  be  mingled  with  the  iron  will  naturally  ascend 
to  the  top  if  the  mould's  formation  is  favorable  to  its  rapid 
transit  in  that  direction;  but,  should  it  be  otherwise,  the 
probabilities  are  that  it  will  be  found  imprisoned  at  whatever 
part  of  the  mould  it  happened  to  be  when  the  latter  had 
received  its  fill  of  metal.  Remote  risers  do  not  in  the  least 
affect  this  phenomenon,  as  the  currents  of  metal  leading 
thereto  may,  and  usually  are,  far  removed  from  the  already 
formed  blisters  in  congealed  parts  of  the  casting.  In- 
creased pressure  will  assist  to  force  mould-gases  out  at  the 
legitimate  vents,  but  will  render  small  help  to  expel  such 
as  may  be  contained  in  the  metal  itself,  when  the  ordinary 
processes  of  moulding  is  employed.  See  VENTING  ; 
PRESSING  FLUID  STEEL;  RUST;  PASTE. 

Blistered  Steel. — A  remarkable  modification  of  iron 
intermediate  between  cast  and  wrought  iron,  containing 
less  carbon  than  cast  iron,  but  more  than  wrought  (about 
1J  per  cent).  It  is  made  by  imbedding  bars  of  best 
wrought  iron  in  powdered  charcoal  in  boxes  or  sand- 
furnaces  which  exclude  the  air,  and  heating  intensely 
for  a  week  or  ten  days.  The  steel,  when  withdrawn, 
has  a  peculiar,  rough,  blistered  appearance,  and  for 


Block  moulding.  60  Blower. 

this  reason  is  called  blistercd-steel.      See  CEMENTATION; 
CAST  STEEL. 

Block-moulding. — A  device  for  producing  thin, 
delicate  castings,  by  first  obtaining  correct  impressions  in 
plaster  of  cope  and  nowel  side  of  the  pattern,  upon  which 
the  respective  parts  are  rammed  separately  in  flasks  which 
fit  interchangeably.  By  this  means  all  the  moulds  are 
exact  impressions  of  the  original  pattern,  as  all  danger  of 
ramming  out  of  shape  is  obviated.  The  match-parts  and 
flasks  being  all  interchangeable,  there  is  no  possibility  of 
error.  See  PLATE-MOULDING;  MATCH-PART. 

Block-print. — A  large  core  print  on  a  pattern,  the 
impression  of  which  receives  a  core  containing  some  part 
of  the  mould,  which  if  moulded  from  the  pattern  would 
require  much  more  time,  besides  superior  skill  to  per- 
form it.  The  core  is  termed  a  block  core.  See  CORE- 
PRINT. 

Blower. — The  name  now  applied  to  designate  almost 
all  descriptions  of  machines  for  creating  an  artificial  cur- 
rent of  air  by  pressure.  It  is  claimed  for  the  positive  press- 
ure-blowers, now  in  constant  use,  that  they  measure  and 
force  forward  at  each  revolution  a  fixed  quantity  of  air, 
whether  the  pressure  be  high  or  low  or  the  speed  fast  or 
slow;  and  the  amount  of  air  delivered  can  be  accurately 
determined  and  controlled,  and  the  exact  quantity  neces- 
sary to  effect  the  perfect  combustion  of  a  given  amount  of 
fuel  at  a  given  time  supplied  with  perfect  certainty. 

The  blowing-engine  or  piston-blower  also  gives  a  forced 
blast,  but  it  is  not  so  good  for  the  cupola  as  the  positive 
blower,  because  the  blast  produced  is  irregular  and  comes 
in  puffs  with  every  motion  of  the  piston,  making  it  neces- 
sary to  provide  a  large  receiver  to  equalize  the  blast.  This 


Blow-holes.  61  Bogie. 

is,  of  course,  both  expensive  and  bulky.     This  class  are 
sometimes  called  cylinder-blowers. 

The  common  fan-blower,  a  rotative  blowing-machine, 
consisting  of  vanes  turning  upon  an  axis,  has  nothing  posi- 
tive in  its  operation.  Tite  wings  merely  beat  the  air,  im- 
parting a  momentum  corresponding  with  the  velocity,  but, 
as  resistance  is  opposed  to  the  blast,  the  volume  is  dimin- 
ished in  the  ratio  of  the  resistance  till  a  point  is  reached 
where  the  momentum  and  the  resistance  are  equal,  when 
no  air  whatever  is  discharged;  but  the  fan- wheel  continues 
to  revolve  in  the  case  with  great  rapidity,  absorbing  a  large 
amount  of  power,  but  doing  no  work  at  all.  See  CUPOLA; 
BLAST;  COMBUSTION. 

Blow-holes. — Another  name  for  blisters,  but  more 
correctly  meaning'  such  holes  as  are  further  removed 
from  the  surface,  or,  perhaps,  entire  holes  from  the  sur- 
face down;  while  a  blister  is  so  called  because  of  the  thin 
skin  of  metal  which  covers  the  hole.  See  BLISTER;  VENT- 
ING; PASTE. 

Blowing. — The  rushing,  roaring  noise  created  by  the 
forcible  ejection  of  gases  at  the  runners  and  risers  when 
the  vents  are  insufficient  to  carry  them  away,  or  are  acci- 
dentally choked,  is  by  the  moulders  termed  "blowing." 
See  VENTING. 

Board.— An  abbreviation  of  sweep-board.  See  SWEEP- 
BOARD. 

Bod-stick. — Another  name  for  bott-stick.    See  BOTT- 

ST1CK. 

Bogie. — The  name  sometimes  given  to  swivelled 
trucks  and  carriages  used  about  the  foundry  or  forge. 


Bog-iron  Ore.  62  Bott-clay. 

Bog-iron  Ore  occurs  chiefly  in  allu>ial  soils,  in 
bogs,  meadows,  lakes,  etc.  It  is  a  mineral  of  very  variable 
composition,  but  regarded  as  consisting  essentially  of  per- 
oxide of  iron  and  water — peroxide  of  iron  60  per  cent, 
water  20  per  cent.  Phosphoric  acid  is  usually  present  in 
quantities  varying  from  2  to  11  per  cent  ;  silicic  acid,  alu- 
minia,  oxide  of  manganese,  and  other  substances  which 
seem  accidentally  present  make  up  the  rest.  See  ORES. 

Boiled  Oil.— See  OILS. 

Boiler-moulding  is  almost  a  distinct  class  of 
moulding,  belonging  to  what  is  denominated  liolloiv-ware 
work,  although  the  larger  description  of  boilers  are  some- 
times moulded  in  loam  after  the  manner  of  kettles.  See 
HOLLOW- WARE  MOULDING  ;  KETTLES. 

Boiling-point. — See  EBULLITION. 

Borax  is  procured  by  heating  boracic  acid  with  car- 
bonate of  soda,  the  carbonic  acid  being  expelled  and  the 
boracic  acid  taking  its  place.  This  salt  has  an  alkaline 
taste  and  reaction,  and  possesses  the  property  of  dissolving 
many  metallic  oxides;  hence  its  use  as  a  flux  in  the  weld- 
ing of  metals.  It  dissolves  off  the  coating  of  oxide  formed 
when  they  are  heated,  thus  presenting  a  clean  surface. 
See  FLUX;  SOLDERS. 

Boshes. — That  part  of  a  cupola  immediately  above  the 
tuyeres.  In  large  cupolas  and  blast-furnaces  this  part  is 
gradually  contracted  from  the  widest  part  to  the  hearth, 
and  the  bricks  used  for  this  purpose  are  distinguished  as 
bosh-bricks.  See  CUPOLA;  WATER-BOSHES. 

Bott-clay.— The  clay  used  for  stopping  up  the  tap- 
hole  in  the  cupola.  Any  good,  ordinary  clay  will  answer 


Bott-stick.  63  Bott-stick. 

for  this  purpose,  but  it  requires  more  than  ordinary  care 
to  bring  it  to  the  right  condition  for  effective  use.  If  too 
soft  it  is  impossible  to  fill  the  hole  with  a  firm  plug,  and 
if  too  hard  it  refuses  to  yield  to  the  form  of  the  hole,  so 
that  in  either  case  there  is  danger,  because,  as  the  bottom 
fills,  the  pressure  increases  and  the  imperfect  plug  is  forced 
out.  Besides  being  of  the  right  consistency,  there  should 
also  be  mixed  with  it  a  quantity  of  sea-coal;  this  prevents 
in  a  large  measure  the  sputtering  usually  attendant  upon 
the  use  of  the  raw  clay.  The  operation  of  tapping  is  ex- 
pedited also  by  this  admixture  of  sea-coal,  as  it  prevents 
to  some  exten  tthe  clay  from  baking  hard,  and  for  this 
reason  is  more  easily  picked  out  with  the  tapping-bar. 
See  BOTT-STICK;  TAPPING-BAR. 

Bott-stick,  sometimes  called  a  "bod-stick,"  is  the 
tool  used  by  the  cupola-man  for  plugging  the  tap-hole 
with  clay  after  sufficient  or  all  the  iron  has  been  allowed 
to  run  from  the  cupola.  It  may  consist  of  a  long  iron  rod 
about  |  inch  diameter,  one  end  of  which  is  formed  into  an 
eye  for  ease  in  handling,  and  upon  the  other  is  forged  a 
fiat  button,  about  2  inches  diameter,  made  with  a  corru- 
gated face  in  order  that  the  clay  bott  which  is  pressed 
upon  it  may  adhere  thereto.  For  "  stopping-in "  over- 
large  ladles  it  is  almost  necessary  to  have  an  iron  bott- 
stick,  but  when  small  ladles  are  in  use,  and  the  hole  is 
opened  frequently,  a  long  wood  shaft  may  be  substituted 
for  the  iron  rod  by  either  forming  the  button  on  a  spike 
and  driving  it  in  the  end,  which  is  prevented  from  split- 
ting by  an  iron  band,  or  it  may  be  formed  on  an  iron 
socket  made  to  receive  the  end  of  the  shaft.  The  wood 
ones  are  much  lighter  and  easier  to  handle  than  the  iron 
ones.  To  use  the  bott-stick  properly,  see— first,  that  the 
button  is  cold  and  wet,  a  pail  of  water  being  kept  near 
by  for  the  purpose;  second,  that  the  clay  bott  is  pressed 


Bottom-part.  64 

firmly  down  upon  it  and  worked  with  the  hand  into  the 
form  of  a  cone;  and  thirdly,  that  the  back-hand  be  slightly 
raised,  pressing  the  clay  into  the  hole  from  the  upper  side. 
By  this  means  whatever  commotion  takes  place  when  the 
molten  iron  touches  the  wet  clay  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  tap-hole  in  a  downward  direction,  thus 
avoiding  all  the  unpleasantness  and  danger  caused  by  the 
spray  of  metal,  which  is  thrown  in  all  directions  when  the 
bott  is  thrust  carelessly  into  the  hole  with  the  stick  held  in 
a  horizontal  position.  See  BOTT-CLAY. 

Bottom-part. — The  nowel  or  drag.    See  FLASKS. 
Bottom-plate. — See  FOUNDATION-PLATE. 

Brass. — A  yellow  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  much  used 
for  furnishing  and  decorating,  as  well  as  for  parts  of 
machinery.  It  is  common  to  include  other  alloys,  as  cop- 
per and  tin  in  this  classification  ;  these,  however,  are  not 
brass,  but  bronze,  and  will  be  found  described  under  that 
head.  When  brass  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale,  it  is 
usually  made  to  contain:  copper  2,  zinc  1;  but  the  alloys 
must  necessarily  vary  according  to  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  intended.  If  more  than  ordinary  tenacity  is  re- 
quired the  alloy  must  consist  of  about :  copper  16,  zinc  4; 
but  if  a  hard,  brittle  alloy  possessing  reduced  resisting 
power  is  desired,  the  zinc  may  be  increased  to  equal  quan- 
tity with  the  copper,  or  even  beyond  that  where,  at  copper 
1,  zinc  2,  the  yellowness  ceases  entirely,  and  we  have  a 
brilliant  bluish-white  alloy  of  so  crystalline  a  nature  that 
it  may  be  crushed  in  a  mortar. 

The  method  of  manufacturing  brass  in  large  quantities 
is  to  heat  in  crucibles  a  mixture  of  calamine,  or  carbonate 
of  zinc,  charcoal,  and  scrap,  or  grain  copper,  in  the  propor- 
tions thus  :  calamine  and  charcoal  3,  copper  2,  The 


Brass.  65  Brass. 

actiou  of  the  white  heat  reduces  the  calamine,  and  sepa- 
rates the  zinc,  which,  combining  with  the  copper,  forms  a 
brass  consisting  of  copper  2,  zinc  1. 

Common  ingot  brass  is  made  by  the  simple  fusion  of 
copper  16,  zinc  8  ;  but,  owing  to  the  volatility  of  zinc,  the 
resultant  proportions  of  the  alloy  are  seldom  to  be  relied 
upon,  and  calamine  brass  is  preferred.  The  vapor  of  the 
zinc-ore  by  the  latter  mode  combines  more  intimately  with 
the  copper. 

Yellow  brass  for  filing  and  machining  ranges  from  :  cop- 
per 16,  zinc  4,  to  copper  16,  zinc  9.  Up  to  this  propor- 
tion brass  remains  very  ductile  and  malleable  ;  beyond  it, 
the  crystalline  nature  asserts  itself  in  proportion  as  the  zinc 
is  increased.  Copper  and  zinc  mix  in  all  proportions,  but  it 
requires  the  greatest  care  in  mixing  to  obtain  the  proportions 
aimed  for,  owing  to  the  zinc's  volatility,  as  before  stated. 

With  reference  to  the  color  of  brass  alloys,  copper-red 
gives  place  to  yellow  at  copper  16,  zinc  4,  and  maintains 
about  the  same  hue  up  to  copper  16,  zinc  10  ;  when  it 
gradually  becomes  lighter  up  to  copper  1,  zinc  2 — which 
as  before  stated,  is  a  bluish-white  with  a  brilliant  silvery 
lustre  when  polished. 

The  fusibility  of  brass  increases  with  the  zinc  ;  so  that 
the  metal  from  copper  16,  zinc  7,  up  to  copper  16,  zinc  15, 
is  eminently  adapted  for  running  a  large  class  of  furnish- 
ing and  decorative-work  ;  but  before  such  brittle  metal  as 
this  is  subjected  to  the  various  processes  of  cleaning,  dip- 
ping, lacquering,  and  bronzing,  it  is  invariably  annealed. 

The  specific  gravity  of  brass  is  greater  than  that  deduci- 
ble  from  the  specific  gravity  of  the  metals  composing  it. 

The  brass  for  ornament  is  prevented  from  tarnishing  by 
lacquering  and  bronzing.  The  former  consists  of  coating 
with  shellac  in  spirit,  with  some  coloring;  the  latter  pro- 
cess being  effected  by  the  application  of  metallic  solutions, 
after  a  course  of  cleansing  in  acids. 


Brass. 


66 


Brass. 


Brass  from  copper  50,  zinc  50,  to  copper  63,  zinc  37, 
may  be  rolled  into  sheets  and  otherwise  worked  when 
heated  to  a  red  heat;  but,  according  to  Muntz,  copper  60, 
zinc  40,  is  the  best  proportion.  When  brass  is  made  for 
this  purpose  it  is  cast  into  ingots,  then  heated  and  rolled. 

Brass  is  made  hard  by  hammering  or  rolling,  but  its 
temper  may  be  again  drawn  by  heating  to  a  cherry-red  and 
plunging  it  in  water. 

Copper-castings  are,  to  a  great  extent,  freed  from  poros- 
ity or  honeycombing  by  the  addition  of  from  |  to  1  ounce 
of  zinc  to  16  ounces  of  copper. 

The  following  compositions  are  alloys  of  copper  and  zinc 
only,  which  constitute  true  brass: 


COPPER  AND  ZINC  ALLOYS. 


Copper. 

Zinc. 

16 

i  to  1 

Brass  gilt  for  jewelry,  etc.,  bronze  color  

16 

1    to  1J 

32 

1 

16 

3 

20 

3 

Brass  to  imitate  gold  

16 

31  to  4 

16 

6 

16 

7 

Brass  castings   ordinary  

16 

8 

Muntz  metal  (one  extreme)  

16 

9  to  10| 

16 

16 

Pale-yellow  brass  for  dipping  (spelter  solder  for 
copper  or  iron)  

16 

12 

16 

14 

Spelter  solder  for  brass  

16 

16 

Speculum  metal  .  . 

100 

1«8. 

32 

33 

As  a  supplement  to  the  above,  the  author  appends  the 
following  list  of  mixtures,  which  are  largely  original,  and  of 
known  excellence  for  the  numerous  purposes  mentioned : 


Brass. 


67 


Brass. 


MISCELLANEOUS   MIXTURES  *  FOR  GENERAL 
MACHINERY  PURPOSES,  ETC. 


ii 

1 

£3 

H 

•a 

! 

d 

c 

N 

Soft  Machinery  brass  

16 

9, 

5 

Large  steps  or  bearings  (cominou)  

16 

2 

2 

2 

16 

3 

I 

I 

"         "      "        •'         (best)  

16 

4 

Small      "       "        "        

16 

9, 

H 

1 

16 

94 

2 

i 

16 

16 

9, 

9, 

1 

16 

44 

16 

31 

Small  clock-bells  

16 

3 

16 

9, 

1 

-i 

"                "            "    (jrood) 

16 

2 

1 

a 

"     (collars   etc.)  

16 

94 

1 

\ 

16 

1 

9 

Small        "                             

16 

1 

5 

16 

11 

g 

.... 

Yel  low  brass  

16 

8 

16 

7 

"     (better)  

16 

6 

16 

4 

16 

9, 

3 

16 

1 

Small      "           "     

16 

4- 

16 

4 

JL 

16 

9,1 

Wheels  

16 

9, 

Gun-metals           .    .         

16 

19- 

Connecting-rod  steps  

13 

H 

16 

4. 

3 

16 

8* 

1 

Piston-rings  ..... 

30 

44- 

15 

Brass  to  expand  by  heat  equal  with  iron 

79 

6 

15 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  see  ALLOY; 
BRASS-FURNACE;  BRASS-MOULDING;  BRASS-TEMPERING; 
BRASS-SCRAP;  BELLS;  BRONZE;  CEMENTATION;  COPPER; 
SHEATHING-METAL;  SOLDERS;  LACQUERING;  ZINC;  GAS- 
BLAST  FURNACE;  PORTABLE  FURNACE;  HARD  ALLOY. 


Brass-furnace.  68  Brass-furnace. 

Brass-furnace. — The  common  method  of  erecting 
brass-furnaces  for  melting  in  crucibles  is  to  build  them  on 
one  side  of  the  shop.  The  insides  are  formed  within  cast 
or  wrought  iron  casings,  from  18  to  20  inches  diameter  and 
about  36  inches  high.  These  are  ranged  over  the  ash-pit, 
and  the  air  is  supplied  through  gratings  set  even  with  the 
foundry  floor,  through  which  the  air  finds  its  way  to  the 
pit  below.  Usually  the  tops  of  the  furnaces  stand  about 
9  inches  above  the  floor  and  are  covered  while  in  operation 
with  a  cast-iron  doomed  door.  The  casings  are  fire-brick 
lined  to  a  suitable  diameter  that  will  leave  the  requisite 
amount  of  fuel  to  surround  the  crucible.  A  small  hole, 
about  6  inches  square,  is  left  near  the  top,  which  connects 
with  the  flue  leading  to  the  chimney.  If  a  row  of  such 
furnaces  are  thus  constructed,  there  should  be  a  separate 
flue  for  each,  so  that  one  or  more  of  them  may  be  em- 
ployed at  any  time  without  any  interference  with  the 
draft.  The  chimney  in  all  cases  should  be  a  tall  one  to 
encourage  the  draft. 

Portable  brass-furnaces,  round  and  square,  are  now  sup- 
plied by  the  dealers.  They  are  simply  an  iron  casing,  com- 
plete in  all  respects,  except  the  lining;  can  be  located  at 
any  part  of  the  foundry,  and  connected  with  the  chimney. 

The  Gas-blast  Melting  Furnace  manufactured  by  the 
American  Gas  Furnace  Company  is  now  extensively  em- 
ployed for  all  purposes  of  crucible  melting.  A  positive  air- 
pressure  maintains  perfect  combustion  of  the  gas,  and  clean- 
liness is  secured  by  the  entire  absence  of  soot.  The  best 
results  are  attained  in  these  furnaces  by  securing  perfect 
combustion  and  by  confining  the  space  to  be  heated  to  the 
smallest  possible  limits  consistent  with  convenience.  These 
furnaces  are  made  in  sizes  to  suit  Dixon's  block  cruci- 
bles from  Nos.  0  to  200;  special  fire-bricks  being  made  for 
every  sized  furnace  (see  GAS-BLAST  FUKSTACE).  Very  fre- 
quently the  cupola  is  employed  when  a  large  quantity 


Brass-furnace.  69  Brass  furnace. 

of  metal  is  wanted.  A  much  better  mode,  however,  is  to 
provide- a  reverberatory  or  air-furnace  in  close  proximity  to 
the  brass-foundry,  or  wherever  it  may  be  customary  to  cast 
heavy  brass- work. 

The  Garrett  Furnace,  a  fire-brick  construction  after  the 
manner  of  an  air-furnace,  is  described  by  the  inventor  as 
follows: 

"  In  a  shop  where  any  considerable  amount  of  brass  is 
melted,  the  method  of  melting  in  a  crucible  is  wasteful  and 
expensive.  The  Garrett  Furnace  not  only  saves  the  cost  of 
crucibles,  but  is  also  economical  of  metal,  fuel,  and  labor, 
besides  reducing  the  time  of  melting  a  charge  from  one 
half  to  two  thirds.  This  furnace  was  especially  designed 
for  full  gas,  but  with  a  slight  modification  of  details  it 
could  be  used  with  soft  coal  or  crude  oil  as  a  fuel. 

There  is  a  slant  hole  for  charging  coils  of  copper  wire  or 
material  difficult  to  compress  into  a  small  space.  Smaller 
pieces,  bars,  or  plates  are  introduced  through  the  charging- 
door.  The  bosh  for  the  molten  metal  is  located  below  the 
melting-chamber,  being  33  inches  wide  by  18  inches  high 
from  the  bed  to  the  top  of  the  arch,  which  is  composed  as 
shown,  and  has  filling  above  and  between  it  and  the  bottom 
of  the  charging-chamber,  made  of  fire-clay  and  sand.  The 
bed  of  the  bosh  is  undulated  being  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  fire-clay  and  sand,  which  makes  it  as  hard  as  a  crucible 
and  will  last  from  two  to  seven  weeks  without  repair,  ac- 
cording to  the  work  required  of  it.  Below  the  bosh  gas- 
flues  are  provided,  two  6-inch  by  6-inch  for  gas  and  two 
the  same  size  and  adjacent  for  air.  The  gas  is  brought  to 
the  gas-flues  by  two  ^  inch  gas-pipes  having  valves  for  regu- 
lating the  supply,  and  passes  along  the  flues  to  a  combus- 
tion-chamber, 12  inches  wide,  36  inches  long,  where  it 
mixes  with  air,  ascends  and  passes  over  the  bridge,  and  is 
divided  into  two  flames,  one  larger  than  the  other.  The 
large  flame  passes  over  the  bosh  to  the  flue,  and  the  other 


Brass  Mirrors.  70  Brass  Moulding. 

flame  passes  through  the  melting-chamber  to  the  flue. 
Dampers  are  provided  in  the  flues  to  regulate  the  supply 
of  gas,  or  proportion  it  for  either  of  the  chambers  as  de- 
sired. One  flue  is  4  inches  by  10  inches,  and  the  other 
is  8  inches  by  10  inches,  both  entering  into  a  stack-flue  16 
inches  square. 

A  door  is  provided  to  give  access  to  the  combustion- 
chamber  and  bridge,  and  another  door,  gives  access  to  the 
bosh.  See  BRASS;  PORTABLE  FURNACES. 

Brass  Mirrors. — These  mirrors  are  of  classical  an- 
tiquity, and  were  made  from  an  alloy  known  as  speculum 
metal,  which  produces  a  very  hard  metal  with  great  reflect- 
ing power;  but  it  is  now  very  seldom  met  with.  A  good 
speculum  metal,  very  white  and  hard  as  steel,  is  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  copper  and  tin.  Copper  7,  tin  4,  zinc  3, 
form  an  alloy  of  a  light  yellow  color,  possessing  much  lustre. 
This  alloy  is  sometimes  made  from  copper  2,  tin  1,  with 
the  addition  of  ^  arsenic.  Lord  Rosse's  composition  was: 
copper  252.8,  tin  117.8.  See  SPECULUM  METALS;  ROSSE'S 
TELESCOPE;  BRASS. 

Brass  Mixtures. — See  BRASS. 

Brass  Moulding. — So  far  as  the  actual  moulding  is 
concerned  there  is  very  little  to  distinguish  it  from  the  or- 
dinary course  pursued  for  producing  castings  in  iron.  For 
the  larger  castings  in  dry-sand  and  loam,  exactly  similar 
moulds  are  made,  but  for  the  very  light  brass  castings  in 
green  sand  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  very  fine  silex  sand,  which 
contains  a  slight  portion  of  clay.  When  the  sand  contains 
clay  in  excess  it  favors  the  production  of  the  finest  work; 
but  there  is  always  danger  of  blown  spots  when  this  is  used, 
only  to  be  remedied  by  drying  the  moulds,  or  introducing 
more  open  sand,  to  permit  the  gases  generated  at  pouring 


Brass  Scraps.  71  Brass  Scraps. 

to  escape.  It  is  not  necessary  to  cast  brass  any  hotter  than 
will  result  in  clear,  sharp  outlines  in  the  casting. 

As  a  rule,  most  brass  castings  will  be  freer  from  honey- 
combs, if  the  metal  is  forced  in  at  the  lowest  part  of  the 
mould,  taking  care  that  suitable  vents  are  provided  for 
carrying  off  the  gas  as  it  generates  in  the  mould. 

The  fact  that  all  sands  taken  from  the  earth  must  con- 
tain more  or  less  vegetable  matter,  which  burns  out  as  soon 
as  the  metal  strikes  it,  making  a  rough  and  unfinished 
looking  casting,  has  prompted  some  dealers  to  prepare  a 
composition  of  minerals,  crushed  and  put  through  a  pro- 
cess known  alone  to  themselves,  where  every  trace  of  vege- 
table or  any  other  matter  not  standing  a  high  fire-test  is 
extracted,  the  sand  being  usually  ground  and  bolted.  See 
BRASS;  FACI^G-SA^D;  ROCK-CRUSHER. 

Brass  Scraps. — Old  brass,  judiciously  selected,  may 
be  made  to  do  excellent  service.  As  the  regulation  mixt- 
ures for  the  several  articles  made  in  brass  are  pretty  much 
the  same  all  over,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  make  such  choice 
from  the  old  scraps  as  will  almost  answer  present  needs 
very  often  by  making  such  additions  as  are  necessary  to 
bring  the  mixture  up  to  the  required  standard  in  any  of 
the  metals  which  the  scrap  may  be  lacking  in.  Another 
important  feature  in  using  scrap-brass  is  to  remember  that, 
when  it  is  melted  over  again,  more  or  less  of  the  zinc  and 
lead  oxidizes  and  wastes;  this,  of  course,  changes  the  original 
proportions,  and  must  be  made  good  by  add  itions  of  the  above 
metals.  For  old  brass  that  has  been  remelted  more  than 
once,  it  is  well  to  add  1  pound  of  lead  to  16  pounds  of 
scrap;  a  little  less  will  do  when  the  metal  has  not  been  recast. 

Brass  borings  and  turnings  may  be  melted  with  little 
or  no  waste  by  packing  the  crucible  full  and  hard,  using 
a  cover  and  luting  it  well.  Add  a  little  lead  when  melted. 
See  Bit  ASS;  CRUCIBLE. 


Brass-tempering.  72  Breast  hole. 

Brass-tempering.— Brass  containing  the  least  zinc 
is  the  softest  and  most  easily  wrought  but,  with  a  pro- 
portion of  one  fourth,  brass  is  still  perfectly  malleable 
when  cold.  Hammering  increases  or  creates  elasticity  in 
brass,  destroys  its  flexibility,  adds  considerably  to  its  dur- 
ability, and  imparts  magnetic  power.  If  it  is  desired  to 
draw  the  temper  again,  heat  to  a  cherry-red,  and  immerse 
the  article  in  water.  See  BRASS;  TEMPERING. 

Brass  to  Dull. — See  DULLED  BRASS. 

Brazing. — Soldering  with  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc. 
This  operation  is  usually  confined  to  joining  copper,  zinc, 
and  iron  surfaces,  and  in  order  to  effect  a  solid  junction 
the  surfaces  to  be  united  must  be  made  clean  and  bright. 
The  brazing  alloy,  after  being  granulated,  must  be  wetted 
with  ground  borax  and  water  and  then  dried,  after  which 
it  must  be  strewn  over  the  gap  or  crevice,  or  between  the 
two  pieces  to  be  united,  which  are  then  exposed  to  heat 
until  the  solder  flows  between  them.  The  solder  may  be 
rendered  more  fusible  by  the  addition  of  a  little  zinc. 
See  SOLDERING;  SOLDERS;  CAST  IRON"  TO  BRAZE. 

Breast-hole  is  the  hole  in  front  of  the  cupola,  just 
back  of  the  spout,  at  which  place  the  tap-hole  is  formed. 
Much  of  the  trouble  caused  by  slag  gathering  at  the  tap- 
hole  is  attributable  to  the  very  careless  manner  in  forming 
the  tap-hole.  Sand  is  used  for  this  purpose  without  refer- 
ence to  its  refractoriness,  the  consequence  being  that  the 
intense  heat  gradually  melts  it  into  slag,  and  it  issues  from 
the  hole  at  every  tap.  If  the  heated  fuel  in  front  is  made 
as  level  as  possible,  filling  all  the  spaces  with  pieces  of  coke 
before  the  sand  is  introduced,  and  no  more  than  about 
three  inches  of  a  well-dampened  and  refractory  mixture  be 
rammed  therein,  much  if  not  all  of  the  trouble  from  slag 


Bricks.  73  Britannia  Metal. 

at  that  point  will  cease.     See  CUPOLA;  SPOUT;  SLAG;  TAP- 
HOLE. 

Bricks. — Good  common  bricks  have  about  the  follow- 
ing composition:  silicia  -|, alumina  %,  lime,  magnesia,  soda, 
iron,  potash,  and  water  being  included  in  the  other  fifth. 
The  American  brick  varies  in  size  from  7J  to  8J  inches  long, 
4  to  4J  wide,  and  2J  to  2J-  thick.  English  bricks  average 
9  inches  long,  4J  wide,  and  2J  thick.  A  too  severe  fire  in 
the  kiln  fuses  the  brick  and  causes  hard  clinkers ;  on  the 
other  hand,  insufficient  burning  causes  a  soft  brick  unfit 
for  use.  See  FIRE-BRICK. 

Bricking-iip. — A  relative  term  for  bricklaying,  and 
meant  by  moulders  to  imply  the  process  of  forming  the 
containing- walls  of  a  loam-mould.  Bricks  in  this  instance 
take  the  place  of  flasks,  the  needed  rigidity  being  imparted 
by  binding-plates  which,  if  necessary,  may  be  further 
strengthened  by  bolting  the  sections  together.  The  sweep- 
board  is  the  guide  for  laying,  and  the  bricks  are  set 
apart  for  fine  cinders  to  form  passages  for  the  gases.  See 

IiOUGHItfG-UP ;     SKINNItf  G-LO  AM ;     SWEEP-BOARD  ;     BlND- 

ING-PLATES;  COURSE;  FILLING-IK. 
Brimstone. — See  SULPHUR. 

Britannia  Metal. — A  tableware  alloy,  with  some 
resemblance  of  silver.  Articles  made  from  this  alloy  were 
formerly  made  by  stamping  with  dies,  but  this  has  been 
superseded  by  the  more  efficient  method  of  spinning.  One 
mixture  for  this  metal  is:  brass  4,  tin  4;  after  fusing  add 
bismuth  4,  antimony  4 — this  composition  to  be  added  at 
discretion  to  melted  tin.  Another  is  to  make  up  a  hard- 
ening compound  of  copper  2,  tin  1.  This  is  made  separate 
and  used  with  other  ingredients  as  follows: 


Broken  Castings. 


Brushes. 


BRITANNIA  METAL. 


Tin. 

Hard- 
ening. 

Copper. 

Anti- 
mony. 

Best  quality  

150 

3 

10 

Good     "       

140 

3 

9 

Metal  for  casting            . 

210 

4 

12 

100 

4 

4 

100 

8 

8 

spouts       •  .         •  . 

140 

3 

6 

spoons      

100 

5 

10 

handles  

140 

2 

•6 

pillars  lamps 

300 

4 

15 

See    ALLOYS;      TIN;    ANTIMONY; 
METALS;  WHITE  ALLOYS. 


COPPER;    SPINNING 


Broken  Castings.— See  BURNING. 

Bronze. — A  mixed  metal,  consisting  chiefly  of  copper 
with  a  small  proportion  of  tin,  and  sometimes  of  other 
metals.  It  is  used  for  casting  statues,  bells,  guns,  and 
numerous  other  articles,  in  all  of  which  the  ingredients  are 
of  varying  proportions.  For  a  description  of  the  various 
bronzes,  see  ALUMINUM -BRONZE;  PHOSPHOR-BRONZE; 
MANGANESE-BRONZE;  STATUARY;  BELLS;  DEOXIDIZED 
BRONZE;  VINEGAR -BRONZE;  GUN -METAL,  and  other 
bronzes.  Also,  COPPER;  TIN;  ZINC;  FONTAINEMOREAU'S 
BRONZES;  JAPANESE  BRONZE-WORK. 

Bronzing  Liquids.    See  STAINS  FOR  METALS. 

Brushes. — These  implements  are  now  made  in  infinite 
variety  for  foundry  purposes.  Among  the  number  may 
be  noticed  the  soft  bristles  for  moulders'  ordinary  use;  black- 
ening brushes  of  special  manufacture  for  coating  vertical 
moulds;  flat  English  bristle  for  loam  and  dry-sand  blacken- 


Buckling.  75  Bugs. 

ing;  flat  camelVhair  for  distributing  dry  lead  on  green 
moulds,  as  well  as  for  the  finer  classes  of  loam  and  dry- 
sand  finishing,  and  steel-wire  hand -brushes  for  cleaning 
castings.  An  improved  steel-wire  brush  is  a  rotary,  one 
that  may  be  revolved  by  power. 

Buckling. — The  seamy,  unsightly  scars  to  be  seen  on 
some  castings  when  too  much  slicking  and  too  little  vent- 
ing have  been  expended  on  clayey  loam  or  sand,  When  due 
attention  to  these  shortcomings  fails  to  work  an  improve- 
ment, it  is  evidence  conclusive  that  more  fire-sand  is 
needed  in  the  facing-sand.  See  SLICKER;  SCABBED  CAST- 
INGS; VENTING;  HAMMING;  FACING-SAND. 

Buckle-chain.    See  SWIVEL-CHAIN. 

Bugs. — The  name  given  in  some  places  to  the  small 
shot-scrap  made  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  cupola,  and 
along  the  track  of  the  ladles  during  the  time  of  casting. 
No  description  of  scrap  is  so  difficult  to  manipulate  as  this. 
If  charged  in  bulk  at  the  commencement,  no  end  of  trouble 
is  caused  through  the  accumulations  of  dirty  slag  left  be- 
hind, and  which  materially  impedes  the  regular  working 
of  the  cupola  throughout  the  heat;  whilst  if  it  be  used  in 
small  quantities  with  each  charge,  there  is  a  possibility  of 
more  or  less  of  the  fine  stuff  falling  through  the  openings 
and  finding  a  lodgment  near  the  tuyeres,  or,  what  perhaps 
is  worse,  being  carried  past  the  melting-point  unmelted, 
to  be  again  resurrected  by  the  tools  of  the  machinist — a  too 
frequent  occurrence  where  such  scrap  is  used  indiscrimi- 
nately. The  best  method  of  utilizing  this  foundry  pest  is  to 
choose  a  time  when  everything  is  convenient  and  before 
the  last  charge  of  good  iron  has  got  too  low;  charge  the 
bugs  along  with  a  heavy  proportion  of  some  good  softening 
pig  or  special  compound,  taking  care  that  an  extra  charge 


Building-rings.  76  Burnt  Iron. 

of  fuel  is  used  for  the  purpose.  By  running  this  mixture 
into  pigs,  to  be  remelted,  there  will  be  no  risks  taken,  and 
all  annoyances  previously  spoken  of  will  certainly  be  ob- 
viated. See  CUPOLA;  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Building-rings.    See  BINDING-PLATES. 

Bullet-mould. — This  entire  mould  consists  of  a  pair 
of  hinged  cheeks,  with  one  or  more  spherical  cavities 
reamed  therein,  connecting  with  an  ingate  through  which 
the  melted  lead  is  poured.  They  must  fit  exceedingly  close 
when  brought  together. 

Burden. — The  burden  in  the  cupola  or  blast-furnace 
is  supposed  to  be  light  when  the  proportion  of  fuel  to  ore 
or  iron  is  large.  When  the  fuel  is  proportionately  small  in 
the  charge,  the  burden  is  then  called  heavy.  See  CHARG- 
ING THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Burning. — A  phrase  signifying  brazing  or  mending 
broken  castings  by  melting  the  joining  edges  and  leaving 
the  space  filled  with  molten  metal,  which  when  set  unites 
the  parts.  The  common  process  consists  of  pouring  a  con- 
stant stream  of  hot  fluid  metal  along  the  fissure  or  upon 
the  surface  until  the  parts  are  entirely  fused,  taking  care 
to  leave  an  excess  of  metal  for  subsequent  chipping  and 
trimming  after  it  has  become  cold.  See  BRAZING;  SOLDER- 
ING. 

Burnt  Iron  is  all  such  iron  as  may  have  been  for  a 
lengthened  period  subject  to  a  heat  somewhat  below  the 
melting-point,  on  which  account  it  has  become  little  better 
than  an  oxide  of  iron.  Its  color  is  of  the  various  shades 
of  red,  such  as  may  be  noticed  in  burnt  retorts,  grates,  fire- 
bars, etc.  Iron  of  this  description  should  be  used  sparingly 


Butt-rammer.  77  Calcareous  Spar. 

along  with  a  large  proportion  of  high  silicon  pig,  if  used  at 
all.  Any  attempt  to  reduce  such  iron  without  a  considerable 
admixture  of  good  softener  is  sure  to  result  in  pasty  and 
sluggish  iron  accompanied  by  an  extraordinary  amount  of 
slag,  which  plays  havoc  with  the  cupola.  The  great  amount 
of  waste  which  occurs  in  melting  this  class  of  iron  is  of 
such  extent  as  to  make  the  operation  a  loss  almost  every 
way.  See  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA;  CUPOLA. 

Butt-rammer  is  usually  a  heavy  rammer  with  a  flat, 
round,  or  square  face,  forged  or  cast  to  a  long  rod  or  piece 
of  tubing,  with  which  to  complete  a  course  of  ramming 
after  the  pegging-rammer  has  forced  the  soft  sand  well 
down  on  the  course  immediately  underneath.  See  PEG- 

GING-RAMHER. 

C. 

Cadmium. — A  somewhat  rare  metal  found  associated 
with  zinc  in  nature,  and  is  similar  to  that  metal  in  its 
chemical  relations.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it  tarnishes. 
Cadmium  is  a  lustrous  bluish-white  metal;  melts  and 
volatilizes  at  a  temperature  below  redness,  and  if  heated 
in  the  air  it  takes  fire  and  burns  to  a  brown  oxide.  See 
ZINC. 

Cage  Iron. — A  skeleton  core  iron,  used  for  such 
cores  as  the  jackets  of  cylinders,  etc.  See  SKELETON 
COKE  IRON. 

Calamine. — A  native  carbonate  of  zinc,  used  in  mak- 
ing brass.  See  BRASS;  ZINC. 

Calcareous  Spar. — A  carbonate  of  lime,  occurring 
principally  in  grayish-white  crystals.  It  is  infusible,  falls 
into  quicklime  before  the  blowpipe,  and  effervesces  with 


Calcination.  78  Caliper. 

acids;  its  composition  is  lime  57,  carbonic  acid  43.  This 
mineral  is  of  universal  occurrence,  and  sometimes  it  is 
found  tinged  with  various  shades  of  color,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  manganese,  iron,  and  other  impurities. 

Calcination.  —  The  process  by  which  some  bodies  by 
the  action  of  fire  are  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  calx 
or  cinder.  Most  of  the  metals  can  be  reduced  to  this 
condition,  which  renders  them  easily  reducible  to  powder. 
By  subjecting  ores  to  the  action  of  the  fire  the  volatile 
parts  are  driven  off,  and  the  water  of  crystallization  dissi- 
pated. By  this  process  marble  is  converted  into  lime  by 
expelling  the  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  borax,  gypsum,  alum,  and  other  saline  sub- 
stances which  are  deprived  of  their  water  of  crystallization 
by  the  process  of  calcination.  There  is  a  difference  be- 
tween calcination  and  oxidation,  fire  being  a  necessary 
agent  in  the  former  case,  while  metals  may  be  oxidated  by 
acids,  heat,  or  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  See  WEATH- 
ORES;  KILN. 


Calcium  is  a  light  yellow  metal,  somewhat  harder 
than  lead  —  very  malleable;  melts  at  a  red  heat  and  oxidizes 
in  the  air.  It  exists  in  abundance  in  limestone,  fluor-spar, 
and  gypsum.  See  LIME. 

Caliper.  —  Caliper  compasses  are  very  serviceable  tools 
in  a  foundry  doing  general  work  of  a  superior  order.  No 
consideration  of  false  economy  should  be  tolerated  that 
does  not  furnish  ample  means  for  obtaining  correct  meas- 
urements. These  tools  especially  should  be  of  a  reliable 
character. 

They  may  now  be  obtained  in  an  endless  variety  of 
styles  and  finish  from  the  supply  dealers  throughout  the 
country.  See  GAUGE. 


Camel's-hair  Brush.  79  Cannon. 

Camel's-hair  Brush. — An  excellent  tool  for  giving 
the  final  touches  to  finished  dry-sand  and  loam  work,  as 
also  for  use  on  green-sand  surfaces  with  dry  lead.  For 
these  purposes  they  should  be  double  thickness  and  brass- 
bound.  They  are  sold  by  the  width  at  from  thirty-five  to 
forty  cents  per  inch.  See  BRUSHES. 

Candle.— See  OILS. 

Can-hooks. — This  excellent  device  is  improperly 
called  "cant-hooks"  in  some  localities.  It  consists  of 
a  double  chain,  rope,  or  bur-sling  attached  to  a  ring,  with 
ends  slightly  hooked  for  gripping  the  underside  of  a  flange 
or  projecting  lug.  Very  useful  for  taking  a  balanced  lift 
where  such  practice  is  convenient.  See  SLINGS;  CHAIN. 

Cannel-coal. — A  dense,  compact  coal  of  a  highly 
bituminous  nature,  used  largely  for  making  gas.  See 
COAL;  FUEL;  PETROLEUM. 

Cannon. — A  long  cylindrical  tube  for  throwing  pro- 
jectiles by  the  explosion  of  gunpowder.  The  date  of  the  in- 
vention and  the  name  of  the  inventor  are  unknown.  It  is 
certain  that  King  Edward  employed  cannon  at  the  battle  of 
Cressy,  A.D.  1346,  but  records  are  extant  showing  that  they 
were  known  in  France  as  early  as  the  year  1338;  and  Isaac 
Vossius  asserts  that  they  were  used  in  China  seventeen 
hundred  years  ago.  The  earliest  cannon  were  made  by 
hooping  iron  bars,  or  of  sheets  of  iron  rolled  up  and 
fastened  together.  These  cumbersome  machines  were 
used  for  throwing  large  stones  in  the  manner  of  the  an- 
cients. These  were  gradually  supplanted  by  brass  cannon 
of  much  smaller  calibre,  which  threw  iron  and  lead  balls; 
they  were  first  cast  of  a  mixture  of  tin  and  copper,  which 
was  naturally  called  gun-metal,  but  subsequently  cast-iron 


Caoutchouc.  80  Carbonic  Acid. 

guns  came  into  use  on  account  of  their  being  so  much 
cheaper.    See  ORDNANCE. 

Caoutchouc.— See  RESIN;  INDIA-RUBBER. 
Capacity  of  Ladles. — See  LADLES. 
Carbolic  Acid.— See  TAR. 

Carbon. — A  simple  combustible,  which  constitutes  a 
large  proportion  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 
We  are  familiar  with  it  in  the  diamond,  and  the  various 
kinds  of  charcoal,  mineral  coal,  lampblack,  etc.  Carbon 
unites  with  all  the  simple  combustibles.  With  iron  it 
forms  steel  and  plumbago,  and  with  copper  it  forms  a  car- 
buret. The  diamond  is  the  purest  form  of  carbon.  See 
DIAMOND;  GRAPHITE;  CHARCOAL;  CAST  IRON;  STEEL. 

Carbonates. — Compounds  of  carbonic  acid  with  sali- 
fiable  bases,  composed  either  of  one  prime  of  acid  and  one 
of  base,  or  one  of  acid  and  two  of  base.  The  former  are 
carbonates,  the  latter  bicarbonates. 

Carbonic  Acid. — This  acid  is  composed  of  oxygen 
72,  carbon  28  ;  specific  gr.  1.529,  air  being  1.000.  All 
forms  of  carbon  when  burned  in  the  air  unite  with  oxygen 
to  form  carbonic  acid.  It  constitutes  44  per  cent  of  lime- 
stone. A  cubic  inch  of  marble  yields  four  gallons  of  the 
gas.  Under  a  pressure  of  36  atmospheres  at  32°  carbonic 
acid  shrinks  into  a  colorless  liquid  lighter  than  water.  It 
does  not  resume  the  gaseous  state  when  the  pressure  is  re- 
moved, but  evaporates  with  great  rapidity,  one  portion  ab- 
sorbing heat  from  another,  and  thus  freezing  it  into  a  white 
substance  like  snow.  Unlike  other  acids,  it  does  not  unite 
with  water  to  form  a  definite  hydrate.  It  is  anhydrous  in 


Carbonic  Oxide.  81  Carriage. 

all  the  three  states — gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid.  It  is  incom- 
bustible, and  a  non-supporter  of  combustion.  See  GASES; 
LIQUID;  SOLID. 

Carbonic  Oxide.— See  OXIDE  CARBONIC. 

Carbonize. — To  convert  into  carbon  by  combustion, 
or  the  action  of  fire,  or  any  other  means,  as  the  carburiza- 
tion  of  malleable  iron  by  the  addition  thereto  of  carbon, 
through  solid  or  gaseous  carbonaceous  matters.  See  CEM- 
ENTATION; CRUCIBLE  STEEL. 

Carburet. — The  union  of  carbon  with  a  base,  or  a 
combination  of  carbon  with  any  of  the  simple  substances. 
It  is  more  commonly  termed  a  carbide. 

Card-moulding. — See  PLATE -MOULDING. 

Carneliaii. — A  semi-transparent  mineral  only  distin- 
guished by  its  colors  (the  various  shades  of  red)  from  agate, 
jasper,  etc.  Finest  specimens  of  this  mineral  come  from 
India;  it  has  a  glimmering  lustre  and  is  sometimes  found 
a  dark  blood-red,  passing  into  a  greenish-brown.  It  is  in- 
fusible. Its  composition  is  silex  94,  alumina  3.5,  lime  1.5, 
oxide  of  iron  0.75.  Carnelian  was  much  preferred  by  the 
ancients  for  engraving  upon.  See  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Carriage. — An  iron  vehicle  to  run  on  tracks,  which 
ought  to  be  laid  convenient  to  one  or  more  of  the  foundry 
cranes,  and  from  thence  inside  the  oven  or  stove.  In  plan- 
ning carriages  for  this  purpose  strict  attention  should  be 
given  to  local  requirements,  not  to  any  particular  one  that 
may  have  been  seen  or  heard  of  elsewhere.  For  example  : 
Would  it  be  best  to  make  a  perfectly  flat  table  ?  and,  if  so, 
how  high,  and  how  large  in  area?  Or,  should  it  be  provid- 
ed with  fixed  or  adjustable  racks  ?  If  so,  how  high  and  in 
which  direction,  to  be  most  convenient  for  passing  the 


Carrying  bar.  82  Car-wheel  Founding. 

cores  ?  Again,  would  it  be  of  service  to  attach  taper-sock- 
ets for  loam-work  spindles,  with  the  view  of  building  on 
the  carriage  direct  ?  Finally,  is  it  possible  to  so  combine 
these  or  other  qualities  as  to  make  it  the  best  and  most 
convenient  carriage  possible  for  either  special  or  general 
purposes  ?  See  OVEN  ;  SPINDLE. 

Carrying-bar. — A  stout  wooden  or  iron  bar,  about 
30  inches  long,  having  a  depression  in  the  middle.  By 
means  of  this  contrivance,  two  men  stand  or  walk  side  by 
side,  supporting  the  single  end  of  a  shank-ladle  between 
them.  See  SHANK;  LADLE. 

Carving. — By  this  term  we  generally  understand  the 
art  of  cutting  figures  and  designs  in  wood  with  suitable 
sharp  instruments  made  for  the  purpose.  Cutting  de- 
signs in  stone  is  termed  sculpture,  and  similar  operations 
on  metals  is  called  chasing.  Patterns  for  decorative,  archi- 
tectural, and  other  castings,  which  were  at  one  time  the 
productions  of  the  wood-carver,  are  now  accomplished  in 
shorter  time  and  at  less  cost  by  the  modeller.  See  MOD- 
ELLING. 

Car-wheel  Founding. — The  manufacture  of  car- 
wheel  is  a  special  branch  of  foundry  industry,  which,  in  all 
of  its  varied  phases,  demands  more  than  ordinary  attention 
to  make  good  wheels  at  a  profit.  The  processes  of  their 
manufacture  are  substantially  as  follows  :  First,  a  good, 
substantial  wood  pattern,  or  better,  an  iron  one,  with  iron 
core-boxes  in  which  to  dry  the  cores.  Second,  a  set  of 
flasks  consisting  of  cope,  with  bars  to  fit  one  inch  clear  of 
the  pattern  ;  drag,  with  separate  perforated  bottom-plate  ; 
and  an  intermediate  chill  4  inches  thick,  for  chilling  the 
tread,  with  lugs  and  pins  to  match  both  upper  and  lower 
parts,  and  trunnions  for  reversing.  Third,  moulding  and 
casting.  Fourth,  lifting  from  the  sand  red  hot,  and  lower- 


Car- wheel  Founding.  83  Car- wheel  Founding. 

ing  into  the  annealing-pit,  where  the  wheel  cools  gradually 
in  about  three  or  four  days,  when  it  is  taken  out,  cleaned, 
tested,  and  if  found  sound  in  every  particular,  is  pronounced 
a  chilled  car-wheel. 

The  "  Barr  "  contracting  car-wheel  chill  is  described  in 
The  Machinery  Moulders'  Journal  as  follows  : 

The  ring,  which  constitutes  the  ordinary  chill,  is  divided 
into  96  sections  by  radial  divisions.  The  sections  or  blocks 
are  held  in  position  by  an  outside  ring,  which  is  capable  of 
being  expanded  or  contracted,  thus  causing  the  blocks 
composing  the  chill  to  be  moved,  radially,  outward  or  in- 
ward. By  this  means  the  expansion  which  occurs  in  the 
ordinary  chill  is  entirely  prevented,  and  the  inward  radial 
motion  of  the  chill-blocks  is  such  as  to  extend  the  time  of 
contact  between  the  chill  and  the  contracting-wheel  within, 
until  nearly  the  full  effect  of  the  cooling  influence  of  the 
chill  is  obtained.  The  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
outside  hollow  retaining-ring  is  effected  by  introducing 
steam  or  water. 

The  operation  of  the  chill  is  as  follows:  When  the 
moulder  is  nearly  ready  to  pour  his  metal,  steam  is  turned 
on  through  the  outer  ring,  causing  it  to  expand,  and  carry- 
ing with  it  the  chill-blocks,  thus  increasing  the  diameter  of 
the  chilling  surface.  When  the  chill  becomes  so  warm  that 
you  can  barely  lay  your  hand  upon  it  the  steam  is  then 
turned  off.  The  iron  is  now  placed  in  position  to  pour, 
and  the  moment  the  iron  enters  the  gate  or  pouring-head, 
cold  water  is  passed  through  the  ring  which  causes  a  con- 
traction of  the  outside  hollow  sustaining  ring  and  a  conse- 
quent decrease  in  diameter  of  the  chilling  surface. 

This  chill  has  been  in  use  in  our  foundry  for  the  past 
year,  and  during  that  time  our  loss  from  chill-cracks  and 
other  causes  has  been  ^  of  1  per  cent,  while  in  the  old- 
style  chill  the  loss  has  been  from  3  to  6  per  cent. 

There  is  in  fact  an  entire  absence  of  chill-cracks,  rough 


Case-hardening.  84  Case  hardening. 

tread,  and  sweats,  and  the  presence  of  slag  almost  entirely 
prevented.  There  is  a  decided  improvement  in  the  depth 
of  white  iron  and  its  uniformity  around  the  tread;  the 
average  variations  in  the  white  iron  being  about  T^  inch, 
while  in  the  old  or  solid  chill  I  have  known  it  to  vary  as  much 
as  f  to  J  inch.  The  quality  of  gray  iron,  with  its  freedom 
from  slag  or  imperfections,  and  the  general  strength  of  the 
wheel  is  enhanced  by  hotter  and  faster  pouring,  which  is 
made  possible  by  the  use  of  this  chill.  With  the  old  or 
solid  chill  the  time  consumed  in  pouring  a  chill  is  about 
twenty  seconds,  and  with  the  contracting  chill  nine  to 
twelve  seconds. 

There  is  only  one  objection  to  the  Bar  contracting  chill, 
and  that  is  the  small  ridges  formed  by  the  spaces  between 
the  chill-blocks.  These  we  are  compelled  to  grind  off  with 
an  emery-wheel.  This  labor  can  be  lessened  by  filling 
these  crevices  with  sharp  sand. 

Case-hardening  is  the  term  applied  to  the  process 
of  converting  the  external  surface  of  articles  or  masses  of 
iron  into  steel,  with  the  view  of  combining  the  hardness  of 
the  latter  with  the  toughness  and  comparative  cheapness  of 
the  former.  This  may  be  done  by  placing  iron  articles 
(finished,  but  not  polished),  along  with  animal  carbon,  as 
hoofs,  leather,  skins,  etc.,  that  have  been  partly  burned  to 
admit  of  being  powdered,  into  an  iron  box,  well  luted,  and 
subjecting  them  to  a  red  heat  for  about  half  an  hour,  or 
even  more,  according  to  the  depth  of  hard  surface  needed, 
after  which  plunge  the  contents  into  water. 

Cast  iron  may  be  hardened  on  the  surface  by  first  bring- 
ing to  a  red  heat  and  rolling  in  a  mixture  of  saltpetre, 
powdered  prussiate  of  potash,  and  sal-ammoniac  in  equal 
proportions,  after  which  immerse  in  a  bath  of  water  which 
contains  in  each  gallon,  sal-ammoniac  4  oz.,  prussiate  of 
potash  2  oz. 


Casings.  85  Castings,  To  Galvanize. 

Small  iron  articles  will  be  case-hardened  by  allowing 
them  to  remain  30  minutes  in  a  fused  liquid  consisting  of 
common  salt  10,  prussiate  of  potash  1,  and  subsequently 
plunging  into  cold  water.  An  iron  pot  will  serve  to  fuse 
in. 

Casings  are  perforated  iron  shells,  provided  with 
prickers  for  carrying  the  loam  thickness,  and  with  means 
for  lifting  and  turning  over  the  cope  part.  When  the  form 
of  castings  is  favorable  to  non-interference  with  contraction, 
as  in  some  sugar-pans,  crystallizing-cones,  and  other  kindred 
castings,  both  inside  and  outside  moulds  may  be  swept  with 
the  spindle,  closed  and  cast,  without  any  subsequent  ram- 
ming in  the  pit  which  necessarily  attends  the  ordinary 
methods.  Cylindrical  casings  are  equally  as  advantageous 
when  the  quantity  of  castings  required  will  warrant  the 
outlay  for  making  them.  See  BELLS;  KETTLES;  SPINDLE. 

Cast. — A  term  used  among  fine-art  workers,  meaning 
impressions  from  sculptures,  medals,  and  other  delicate 
works  of  art;  also,  the  taking  of  casts  from  the  face  and 
other  natural  objects.  See  PLASTEK-CAST. 

Cast  is  a  common  term  in  the  foundry;  as,  when  a  piece 
has  been  poured,  it  is  said  to  be  cast ;  when  a  moulder  has 
finished  pouring  as  many  moulds  as  constitute  a  day's 
product,  he  is  considered  to  be  cast  off. 

Casting. — The  finished  or  completed  product  in  the 
foundry. 

The  act  of  pouring  metal  into  a  mould  is  called  casting 
the  mould. 

Castings,  To  Bronze.— See  STAINS  FOR  METALS. 
Castings,  To  Galvanize.— See  ZINC-COATING. 


-   - 


Castings,  Weight  of.  86  Cast  Iron. 

Castings,  Weight  of.— See  WEIGHT  OF  CASTINGS. 

Cast  Iron. — Cast  iron  is  the  product  of  the  iron  smelt- 
ing-furnace.  Iron  occurs  in  nature,  almost  universally,  in 
a  state  of  combination.  The  mineral  masses  which  it  forms 
with  oxygen,  carbon,  sulphur,  and  the  metals,  and  from 
which  it  is  extracted,  are  called  its  ores.  It  is  strongly 
magnetic,  and  rubs  into  a  black  powder.  Magnetic  iron  ore 
(loadstone)  is  one  of  the  richest  ores  of  the  iron,  contain-- 
ing  72  per  cent  of  iron  and  28  of  oxygen.  Specular  or  red 
iron  ore  is  very  hard,  and  sometimes  presents  a  polished 
appearance,  brown  in  color;  but  its  powder  is  always  red — 
by  which  means  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  magnetic 
oxide.  This  ore  contains  63  per  cent  of  iron  and  36  of 
oxygen.  Red  hematite  is  much  used,  being  very  plentiful, 
as  also  is  brown  hematite,  which  is  found  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  world;  it  contains  about  86  per  cent  of  peroxide  of 
iron  to  about  14  of  water.  Clay  ironstone  occurs  amongst 
the  coal  measures,  and  contains  only  about  37  per  cent  of 
iron.  Bisulphide  of  iron,  or  pyrites,  occurs  in  large  quanti- 
ties under  different  forms.  Pyrites  is  prized  chiefly  as  a 
source  of  other  substances  ;  it  is  never  worked  for  its  iron. 

The  richer  iron  ores  yield  a  good  iron  by  simply  heating 
the  broken  ore  with  charcoal  in  an  open  fire  with  blast. 
The  ore  is  deoxidized,  or,  in  other  words,  deprived  of  its 
oxygen  by  the  carbon  of  the  fuel,  and  the  reduced  iron  is 
gathered  into  a  pasty  mass  called  a  "  bloom,"  while  the 
earthy  impurities  contained  in  the  ore  combine  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  oxide  of  iron  to  form  a  slag.  Very  much  of  the 
iron  is,  by  this  method,  lost  in  the  slag,  and  there  is  also  a 
great  waste  of  fuel;  but  the  method  is  so  simple  that  it  may 
be  practised  by  people  possessing  little  knowledge  of  chem- 
istry, and  for  this  reason  it  is  no  doubt  the  oldest  method 
of  extracting  iron  from  its  ores. 

The  metal  is  not  usually  obtained  pure  in  the  extraction 


Cast  Iron.  87  Cast  Iron. 

of  iron  from  its  common  ores,  as  it  contains  more  or  less 
carbon,  which  imparts  to  it  a  fusible  nature;  for  which  rea- 
son iron  in  this  state  is  designated  "  pig  iron,"  or  cast  iron. 
The  processes  connected  with  the  reduction  of  the  ores  con- 
sist of,  first,  calcining  or  roasting  (this  is  done  to  expel 
carbonic  acid,  water,  sulphur,  and  other  volatile  ingredients 
of  the  ore);  secondly,  the  reduction  of  the  oxide  of  iron  to 
the  metallic  state  by  ignition  with  carbon  ;  thirdly,  the 
separation  of  the  earthy  impurities  of  the  ore  by  fusion 
with  other  matters  into  a  slag;  and,  fourthly,  the  carboniz- 
ing and  melting  of  the  reduced  iron.  The  purest  kind  of 
iron  ores  do  not  require  to  be  previously  calcined,  but  with 
most  of  them  it  is  essential. 

Some  of  the  larger  examples  of  blast-furnaces  have  a 
width  at  the  boshes  of  25  feet,  and  are  over  100  feet  in 
height.  These  are  commonly  called  smelt  ing-furnaces,  be- 
cause the  process  of  separating  the  iron  from  its  ore,  called 
reducing,  is  conducted  in  them.  The  top  or  mouth  of  the 
furnace  serves  for  charging  as  well  as  for  the  escape  of 
smoke,  etc.,  and  is  therefore  both  door  and  chimney.  The 
tuyeres  at  the  bottom,  like  the  ordinary  cupola,  serve  to 
supply  the  air,  which  is  forced  in  by  means  of  immense 
blowing-engines.  To  economize  fuel,  the  blast  is  sometimes 
heated  to  over  1000  degrees  before  it  is  delivered  into  the 
furnace.  The  furnace  is  sometimes  charged  with  alternate 
layers  of  fuel  (coal  or  coke  and  sometimes  charcoal),  ore,  and 
limestone.  When  the  heat  has  become  sufficiently  intense 
the  carbon  of  the  fuel  deoxidizes  the  iron,  and  carbonic 
acid  is  also  expelled  from  the  lime,  leaving  it  caustic.  Sand 
and  clay,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  now  remain  combined 
with  the  iron;  the  lime,  acting  as  a  flux,  unites  with  these 
and  forms  a  slag.  The  iron  as  it  melts  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  furnace,  from  whence  it  is  allowed  to  flow  at  intervals 
through  a  tapping-hole,  which  when  not  in  use  is  kept 
stopped  with  sand.  The  slag  flows  out  over  a  dam,  arranged 


Cast-iron  Pipes.  Cast-iron  Pipes. 

in  such  a  manner  as  to  retain  the  molten  iron,  but  to  per- 
mit the  escape  of  the  slag,  which  floats  on  the  iron  as  fast 
as  it  accumulates  in  sufficient  quantity.  As  fresh  supplies 
of  fuel,  ore,  and  flux  are  charged  at  the  top,  the  melted 
iron  is  tapped  at  the  bottom;  where  channels  from  the  tap- 
hole  lead  the  metal  into  sows,  and  from  thence  into  the  pigs; 
the  process  goes  on  without  stoppage,  sometimes  for  years. 

The  product  of  the  smelting-furnace  is,  as  has  been  pre- 
viously stated,  "cast  iron/'  containing  from  2  to  6  per  cent 
of  carbon,  which  in  the  white  irons  is  chemically  combined 
with  the  iron;  while  in  the  gray  it  is  principally  graphitic, 
mechanically  distributed  through  the  iron.  There  are  also 
other  impurities  contained  in  cast  iron,  including  silicon, 
sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  and  sometimes  manganese.  Cast 
iron  is  easily  distinguished  from  malleable  by  its  granular 
texture  and  brittleness,  which  precludes  all  possibility  of 
forging;  but  it  is  this  very  quality  that  gives  it  its  value 
as  a  foundry  iron,  because  it  can  be  so  readily  remelted  and 
cast  into  moulds. 

It  is  presumed  that  cast  iron  expands  at  the  moment  of 
assuming  the  solid  from  the  liquid  state ;  this  expansion 
being  caused  by  the  particles  assuming  a  crystalline  arrange- 
ment as  the  mass  solidifies,  but  that  a  subsequent  contrac- 
tion takes  place  gradually  as  it  becomes  cold.  See  WATER- 
TUYERE  ;  CALCIC ATIOK  ;  ORES  ;  Sow  ;  PIG  IRON. 

Cast-iron  pipes  are  tubes  of  cast  iron  for  con- 
veying water  or  other  fluids.  Elbows,  bends,  curve, 
branch,  tee,  flange,  hawse,  as  well  as  odd  shapes  of  water 
and  other  pipes,  etc.,  all  come  under  the  general  name  of 
jobbing  pipes,  and  are  made  in  almost  every  foundry. 
But  the  straight-length  socket  pipe,  of  which  so  many 
thousand  tons,  of  every  dimension  almost,  are  made  each 
year  for  the  water-works  systems,  are  now  all  made  by  firms 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  manufacture  of  that  class  of 


Cast-iron  Pipes. 


89 


Cast-iron  Pipes. 


castings.  The  defects  formerly  existing  by  reason  of  the 
employment  of  unskilled  labor  at  nearly  all  the  pipe  foun- 
dries have  long  since  ceased  to  exist,  as  the  work  now 
emanating  from  these  concerns  incontestably  proves. 

As  made  by  the  regular  establishments,  pipes  are  all 
cast  vertically  in  cast-iron  casings,  having  the  core  on  a 
barrel.  The  flasks  are  rammed  vertically  on  fixed  founda- 
tions, with  guide  to  receive  the  mandrel  or  pattern.  The 
cores  are  accurately  struck  on  barrels,  in  the  customary 
way,  the  barrels  being  provided  with  ample  means  for 
handling  and  self-adjustment;  which  leaves  little  to  be 
done  except  to  elevate  the  dried  core,  and  lower  it  into  the 
prepared  seat  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould.  Moulds  and 
cores  are  thoroughly  dried  before  casting. 

The  following  table  gives  the  weight  of  one  foot  in 
length  of  pipes  from  1  inch  to  22  inches  diameter  : 


Diam. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight. 

Diam. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight. 

Diam. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

1 

i 

3.06 

18.4 

5 

1 

[ 

34.34 

5.05 

5 

23.72 

j 

\ 

42.28 

U 

\ 

3.67 

1 

29.64 

51 

29.4 

\ 

6. 

B| 

i 

19.66 

37.44 

Jl 

6.89 

| 

25.27 

45.94 

I 

9.8 

31.2 

6 

31.82 

If 

I 

7.8 

3f 

1 

20.9 

40.56 

11.04 

5 

26.83 

49.6 

2 

.| 

8.74 

f 

33.07 

• 

' 

58.96 

1 

12.23 

4 

22.05 

6i 

\ 

- 

34.32 

21 

9.65 

| 

28.28 

\ 

' 

43.68 

13.48 

8 

34.94 

| 

- 

53.3 

2^ 

10.57 

4.1 

^ 

23.35 

\ 

' 

63.18 

14.66 

5 

29.85 

7 

- 

36.66 

19.05 

». 

36.73 

46.8 

2f 

11.54 

41. 

* 

24.49 

] 

56.96 

15.91 

31.4 

• 

67.6 

20.59 

I 

38.58 

1! 

78.39 

3 

12.28 

4| 

1 

25.7 

7^ 

i 

39.22 

17.15 

5 

32.91 

] 

• 

49.92 

22.15 

3. 

40.43 

- 

60.48 

27.56 

5 

i 

26.94 

] 

r 

71.76 

Cast-iron  Pipes. 


90 


Cast-iron  Pipes. 


Diam. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight. 

Diam. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight. 

Diam. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lhs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

7* 

1 

83.28 

1 

122.62 

1 

161.82 

8 

£ 

41.64 

12 

k 

61.26 

16 

1 

80.87 

I 

52.68 

f 

77.36 

5. 

101.82 

|^ 

64.27 

93  7 

3. 

123.14 

7 

76.12 

7 

110.48 

7 

144.76 

1 

88.2 

1 

127.42 

1 

166.6 

8i 

£ 

44.11 

m 

| 

.  63.7 

IH 

! 

83.3 

1 

56.16 

|> 

80.4 

5 

104.82 

i 

68 

3. 

97.4 

! 

126.79 

7 

80.5 

7 

114.72 

7 
j 

149.02 

1 

93.28 

1 

132  35 

1 

171.6 

9 

| 

46.5 

13 

1 

66.14 

17 

| 

85.73 

59.92 

5 

83  46 

107.96 

1 

71.7 

1 

101.08 

3 

130.48 

7 

84.7 

7 

118.97 

7 

"g 

153.3 

1 

97.98 

1 

137.28 

1 

176.58 

91 

£ 

48.98 

13i 

£ 

68.64 

«i 

| 

88.23 

5 

62.02 

6 

86  55 

111.06 

|. 

75.32 

f 

104.76 

1 

134.16 

7 

88.98 

| 

123.3 

7 

157.50 

1 

102.09 

142.16 

1 

181.33 

10 

1 

51.46 

14 

1 

71.07 

18 

5 

114.1 

1 

65.08 

I 

89.61 

|. 

137  84 

8 

78  99 

1 

108.46 

7 

161.9 

7 

93.24 

127.6 

1 

186.24 

1 

108.84 

I* 

147.03 

19 

1 

120.24 

10J 

.1. 

53.88 

1*1 

| 

73.72 

1 

145.2 

5 

68.14 

92.66 

_7 

170.47 

8 

82  68 

3. 

112.1 

I8 

195  92 

7 

97.44 

7 

131.8 

20 

5 

126.33 

1 

112.68 

1 

151.92 

3 

152.53 

11 

1 

56.34 

15 

4 

75.96 

I 

179  02 

5 

71.19 

5 

95.72 

1 

205.8 

8 

86.4 

| 

115.78 

21 

| 

132.5 

1 

101.83 

7 

136.15 

159.84 

1 

117.6 

1 

156.82 

! 

187.6 

Hi 

£ 

58.82 

1*| 

1 

78.4 

i 

215.52 

f 

74.28 

1 

98.78 

22 

i 

138.6 

f 

90.06 

3. 

119.49 

3. 

167.24 

106.14 

1 

140.4 

1 

196.4(5 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  pipe,  let  the  following  rule  be 
observed :  To  the  inner  diameter  add  the  thickness  of 
metal;  multiply  by  3.1416  for  the  circumference,  and  the 


Cast  Iron,  To  Braze.  91  Cement. 

product  by  the  thickness.  This  gives  the  number  of 
inches  contained  in  the  end  section  of  the  casting,  which, 
when  multiplied  by  the  length,  gives  the  total  cubic  inches, 
which,  if  multiplied  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  the 
metal  used,  will  give  the  total  weight.  See  COLUMNS. 

Cast  Iron,  To  Braze.  —  Clean  the  parts  to  be 
joined  and  tin  them  well.  They  may  be  now  placed 
together  in  the  sand,  or  elsewhere,  and  melted  brass  poured 
over  them.  See  SOLDERING. 

Cast  Iron,  To  Chill.— Use  soft- water,  10  gallons; 
salt,  1  peck;  oil  of  vitriol,  -J  pint.  Heat  to  a  cherry  red 
and  dip,  continuing  to  dip  until  hard  enough.  See  CASE- 
HARDENING. 

Cast  Iron,  To  Soften. — Water  4,  aqua-fortis  (nitric 
acid)  1;  steep  for  24  hours. 

Cast  Iron  Mixtures.— See  MIXING  CAST  IRON. 
Cast  Steel. — See  CRUCIBLE  STEEL. 

Catalan  Forge. — A  simple  kind  of  open-hearth  fur- 
nace, once  common  in  Catalonia,  Spain,  for  producing 
malleable  iron;  some  few  are  found  there  still,  as  well  as  in 
some  other  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  In  their  crudest 
form  they  consist  of  a  simple  hole  in  the  ground,  in  which 
are  contained  the  ignited  charcoal  and  the  substances  to 
be  heated ;  the  fire  being  urged  by  a  blast  of  air  blown  in 
through  one  or  more  nozzles  or  tuyeres,  from  either  a  rude 
bellows  or  a  tromp.  See  TROMP. 

Cement. — These  substances  are  generally  employed  in 
a  semi-fluid  or  pasty  state  to  unite  bodies  in  close  adhe- 


Cement.  92  Cement. 

sion,  the  latter  condition  being  the  most  favorable  for 
bringing  the  opposing  surfaces  into  intimate  contact. 

Marine  Glue. — Glue  12,  water  enough  to  dissolve;  add 
yellow  resin  3 ;  melt,  and  add  turpentine  4,  and  mix  thor- 
oughly together. 

Cement  for  Lamps. — Rosin  3,  caustic  soda  1,  water  5, 
boil;  then  add  half  its  weight  of  plaster  of  Paris.  Sets  in 
f  of  an  hour;  not  permeable  to  petroleum. 

Cement  to  Resist  a  Red  Fire,  Water,  and  Oils. — Equal 
parts  of  sifted  peroxide  of  manganese  and  zinc  white; 
soluble  glass,  sufficient  to  form  a  thin  paste.  See  SOLU- 
BLE GLASS. 

Another :  Pulverized  litharge  5  Ibs.,  fine  Paris  white  2 
Ibs.,  yellow  ochre  4  oz.,  hemp  cut  in  shreds  £  oz.;  this  is 
ready  for  use  when  it  has  been  mixed  to  the  consistency  of 
putty  with  boiled  linseed-oil. 

Liquid  Glue. — Glue,  water,  and  vinegar,  each  2  parts. 
Dissolve  in  water-bath,  and  add  alcohol  1  part. 

Cement  for  Steam-boilers,  Steam-pipes,  etc. — Eed  or 
white  lead,  in  oil,  4  parts;  iron  borings,  2  or  3  parts  (soft), 
or  iron  borings  and  salt  water,  and  a  small  quantity  of  sal- 
ammoniac  with  fresh  water  (hard  cement). 

For  Holes  in  Castings. — Sulphur  in  powder,  1  part;  sal- 
ammoniac,  2  parts  ;  powdered  iron  turnings,  80  parts. 
Make  into  a  thick  paste.  The  ingredients  comprising  this 
cement  should  be  kept  separate  and  not  mixed  until  re- 
quired for  use. 

Cement  for  Stopping  Holes  in  Cast  Iron.— Iron  filings,  15 
parts;  sal-ammoniac,  2  parts;  sulphur,  1  part;  ground  or 
powdered  stone,  2  parts;  add  water  until  it  is  about  the 
consistency  of  common  paste;  it  is  then  ready  for  use. 

For  Making  Canvas  Water-proof  and  Pliable. — Yellow 
soap,  1  pound,  boiled  in  6  pints  of  water;  add,  while  hot, 
112  pounds  paint. 

Cement  for  Rust-joints  (Quick-setting). — 1  pound  sal- 


Cementation.  93  Chain. 

ammoniac  in  powder,  2  pounds  flour  of  sulphur,  80  pounds 
iron  borings  (made  to  a  paste  with  water). 

Stone  and  Iron.  —  When  stone  and  iron  are  to  be 
cemented  together,  use  a  compound  of  equal  parts  of  pitch 
and  sulphur. 

For  Cisterns  and  Water-casks. — Melted  glue,  8  parts; 
linseed  oil,  4  parts;  boiled  into  a  varnish  with  litharge. 
This  cement  hardens  in  about  48  hours  and  makes  tight 
joints. 

Rice  Glue,  or  Japanese  Cement. — Rice  flour;  water,  suffi- 
cient quantity.  Mix  together;  then  boil,  stirring  it  all  the 
time. 

Cementation  is  a  chemical  process  consisting  of 
surrounding  a  body  in  the  solid  state  with  the  powder  of 
some  other  body  or  bodies,  and  exposing  the  whole  for  a 
time  to  a  degree  of  heat  insufficient  to  melt  the  contents. 
By  this  means  iron  is  converted  into  steel  when  packed  in 
powdered  charcoal,  and  green  bottle-glass  into  porcelain  by 
sand,  etc.  See  BLISTER-STEEL. 

Centre.     See  SPINDLE;  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Chain. — A  chain  consists  of  a  series  of  iron  links 
welded  one  within  the  other.  The  very  critical  and  par- 
ticular uses  made  of  chains  in  a  foundry  and  elsewhere 
should  suggest  the  propriety  of  devoting  more  attention 
to  their  careful  preservation.  The  fewer  their  number 
the  greater  probability  of  a  right  selection  and  legitimate 
use.  The  tensile  strength  of  good  chain  iron  is  about 
41,000  Ibs.,  but  in  order  to  maintain  that  high  state  of 
efficiency  chains  must  not  be  subjected  to  the  barbarous  sys- 
tem of  hammering  one  sees  sometimes  in  order  to  release 
a  few  kinks.  Another  vile  method  is  to  take  heavy  lifts 
when  one  or  more  of  the  chains  have  been  purposely 


Chain-slings.  94  Change-hook. 

shortened  by  twisting.  A  few  fractured  chains,  and  may- 
hap a  life  lost,  would  be  of  infinitely  greater  cost  than  a 
handy  set  of  swivel-chains,  by  which  means  an  even  lift  can 
be  obtained  as  precisely  as  may  be  desired.  Instead  of  be- 
ing thrown  down  on  the  damp  floor,  chains  should  always 
be  hung  up  and  carefully  protected  from  rust.  An  occa- 
sional heating  to  a  dull  red  in  a  charcoal  fire,  followed  by 
a  long  protracted  cooling  while  shielded  from  the  atmos- 
phere, is  of  great  service,  and  tends  to  restore  the  quality 
of  ductility.  Hard  knocks,  overstraining,  lifting  with 
twists,  moisture,  sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  all 
favorable  to  crystallization,  and  hence  fatal  to  the  well- 
being  of  chains  (see  SWIVEL-CHAIN).  For  strength  of 
chains  and  ropes,  see  ROPES. 

Chain-slings.— See  SLINGS. 

Chalk  is  nearly  a  pure  carbonate  of  lime;  it  effervesces 
with  acids  and  burns  to  quicklime.  In  England  it  forms 
in  beds  sometimes  more  than  100  feet  high.  The  solid 
stone  is  used  for  building  with.  It  is  an  excellent  lime 
for  cement  and  a  good  polishing  substance.  See  LIME- 
STONE. 

Chalk  Composition. — For  obtaining  impressions  of 
simple  objects,  as  medals,  etc.,  or  for  forcing  into  well-oiled 
moulds,  as  busts,  statuettes,  etc.,  this  composition  is  very 
good.  It  is  composed  of  powdered  chalk  and  thin  glue 
worked  to  the  consistency  of  putty,  which,  when  allowed  to 
dry,  becomes  almost  as  hard  as  marble.  All  that  is  needed 
is  to  press  the  composition  hard  down  into  all  the  cavities 
of  the  mould,  and  the  impression  is  perfect.  See  PLASTER- 
CAST. 

Change-hook,    See  DOUBLE  HOOK. 


Chaplet.  95  Charcoal-facing. 

Chaplet. — A  chaplet  proper  consists  of  a  stem  of  in- 
definite length,  terminating  at  one  end  with  an  increased 
flat  surface,  which  renders  it  less  likely  to  be  thrust  into  the 
core  by  pressure  or  weight.  If  this  plate  end  is  forged  out 
of  the  whole  piece  the  chaplet  is  a  good  one,  and  may  be 
relied  upon  ;  but  a  riveted  end  is  an  abomination  for  more 
reasons  than  one.  In  the  first  place  they  are  apt  to  slip 
through  unless  the  shoulder  is  enlarged,  and  that  is  not 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  head  from  flying  off  when  struck ; 
consequently,  whether  they  are  home-made  or  purchased  from 
the  dealers,  the  solid  ones  are  to  be  preferred.  By  means  of 
a  match-plate  very  many  excellent  chaplets  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses may  be  made  of  cast  iron;  for  many  jobs  they  are 
infinitely  superior  to  wrought  iron,  and  very  much  cheaper. 

Chaplet  is  the  general  term  for  almost  every  device  for 
holding  down  or  supporting  cores  and  sections  of  moulds  ; 
even  springers  are  recognized  as  a  species  of  chaplet,  and 
so  called  in  many  parts  (see  SPRING-CHAPLET),  and  solid 
studs  of  almost  every  description  go  by  this  name. 

Two  important  features  in  this  connection  are  rust  and 
lack  of  material.  Both  of  these  conditions  are  fatal  to  a 
mould — the  former  because  of  the  large  amount  of  gas 
evolved  when  the  rust  decomposes;  the  latter  because  of 
their  too  frequent  use  in  parts  where  the  current  of  metal 
dissolves  the  stud,  leaving  the  part  without  support. 

Both  studs  and  chaplets  are  incorrectly  called  anchors 
in  some  foundries.  See  ANCHOR. 

Charcoal.— Charcoal  is  what  remains  of  wood  after  it 
has  been  exposed  to  a  strong  heat  while  protected  from 
the  access  of  the  atmospheric  air.  Charred  bituminous  coal 
produces  what  is  termed  coke.  See  COKE. 

Charcoal-facing. — The  dust  of  pulverized  charcoal. 
See  FACING, 


Charge.  96  Charging-doors. 

Charge. — The  amount  of  metal,  fuel,  flux,  etc.,  intro- 
duced into  the  furnace  at  one  time,  either  as  one  of  a 
number  of  charges  to  constitute  a  whole  heat,  as  in  a 
cupola,  or,  as  the  whole  quantity  charged  at  once,  as  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace. 

Too  much  intelligence  cannot  be  brought  to  bear  on  the 
operation  of  charging  the  cupola,  as  not  only  may  there  be 
a  substantial  saving  effected  in  the  quantity  of  fuel  used, 
but  time  in  melting  may  be  shortened,  as  well  as  hotter 
iron  produced  when  the  true  proportions  of  fuel  to  iron 
has  been  once  accurately  determined.  Commence  with  9 
pounds  of  iron  to  1  of  fuel  above  the  bed-charge,  and  con- 
tinue this  for  one  day,  noting  well  the  length  of  time  taken 
to  melt  the  heat,  as  well  as  the  temperature  of  the  iron 
melted  ;  then  gradually  decrease  or  increase  the  amount  of 
fuel,  as  occasion  demands,  until  the  smallest  percentage  pos- 
sible is  reached,  after  which  the  whole  labor  of  charging  is  re- 
duced to  a  positive  science,  demanding  only  accurate  weigh- 
ing of  the  materials  used  every  day  to  insure  satisfactory 
results  at  every  heat,  providing  the  requisite  blast-pressure 
is  maintained  on  every  occasion.  See  CUPOLA;  RATIO  OF 
FUEL  TO  IKON;  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Charging-doors  are  the  doors  used  for  closing  the 
mouth  of  the  cupola  after  the  charge  has  been  thrown 
therein.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  provide  a  too  limited  hole 
through  which  to  charge  the  iron  and  fuel;  when  this 
occurs,  the  operations  are  sure  to  be  faulty,  as  the  cupola- 
man  cannot  place  the  alternate  layers  of  fuel  and  iron  with 
the  regularity  necessary  for  even  melting.  Very  much  of 
the  irregularity  in  melting,  so  prevalent  almost  everywhere, 
could  be  prevented  if  a  capacious  aperture  was  provided 
with  close-fitting  doors,  which  latter  should  be  kept  closed 
after  the  charge  is  in.  See  CUPOLA;  CHARGING  THE  COM- 
MON CUPOLA, 


Charging-hole.  97  Charging  Cupola. 

Charging  -  hole.  —  The  mouth  of  a  cupola.  See 
CHARGING-DOOKS. 

Charging-platform  (scaffold).  —  The  stage  upon 
which  fuel  and  iron  is  stored  for  convenience  in  charging. 
Usually  the  platform  is  built  about  3  feet  below  the  charging- 
hole  and  immediately  in  front  of  the  latter.  Position  and 
capacity  are  two  important  features.  The  former  should 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  possible  future  developments, — 
such  as  additional  cupolas,  improved  facilities  for  raising 
material,  etc., — while  the  latter  in  all  cases  should  be  of 
strength  sufficient  to  bear  with  perfect  safety  all  the  mate- 
rials for  one  day's  heat,  and  ample  in  area  to  do  this  with- 
out in  any  sense  interfering  with  the  charging  operations. 
See  CUPOLA;  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Charging  the  Common  Cupola. — The  follow- 
ing table  of  common  straight  cupolas,  from  24  to  84  inches 
diameter  inside  of  lining,  all  of  which  have  a  bed  depth  of 
10  inches,  show  what  amount  of  fuel  is  required  for  the 
bed,  first  charge  of  iron,  and  succeeding  charges  of  fuel 
and  iron.  Also  blast-pressure  and  tuyere  area  required  to 
melt  a  given  quantity  of  iron  per  hour,  as  well  as  the  total 
melting  capacity  of  each  cupola  designated.  All  the  fig- 
ures are  based  upon  what  may  be  considered  as  safe  prac- 
tice under  ordinary  conditions.  A  proportionate  increase 
or  decrease  of  bed  fuel  is  necessary  when  the  depth  of 
sand-bed  differs  either  way  from  10  inches,  as  given;  and 
any  increase  of  burden  in  order  to  obtain  improved  ratios  of 
melting  must  be  introduced  gradually.  The  results  as  per 
table  are  absolutely  certain  when  the  power  is  adequate  and 
blast-pipes,  etc.,  sufficiently  capacious  and  free  from  leaks. 

The  total  melting  capacities  given  represents  what  may 
be  expected  irrespective  of  any  system  of  slagging,  or  other 
means  ordinarily  adopted  for  continuous  melting: 


Cheek. 


98 


Chill. 


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See  RATIO  OF  FUEL  TO  IRON;  BLAST-PIPES  ;  SLAG. 

Cheek. — A  portion  of  mould  carried  separate  in  the 
side  of  a  flask,  or  on  a  drawback  plate.  The  cheek  parts 
of  a  flask  are  those  between  the  cope  and  nowel,  as  in  a 
three-part  flask ;  it  is  cope,  cheek,  and  nowel.  See  DEAW- 
BACK  ;  FLASKS. 

Chemical  Analysis  in  the  Foundry.  —  See 

ANALYSIS. 

Chill. — The  heavy  cast-iron  casing  or  former  which  is 
placed  to  give  shape  to  the  casting,  and,  by  its  rapid  absorp- 
tion of  heat,  produces  a  hard  chilled  surface  there.  This 
mode  of  chilling  or  hardening  is  the  one  pursued  for  treads 
of  wheels,  rolls  of  various  kinds,  and  many  other  purposes. 
See  CAR- WHEEL  ;  ROLLS  ;  STEEL-CASTINGS  ;  CASE-HARD- 
ENING. 


China-clay.  99  Chipping-piece. 

China-clay  is  prepared  by  washing  a  white  decom- 
posed granite  found  in  the  southwestern  part  of  England 
and  other  places.  It  is  prepared  hy  first  breaking  irto 
pieces  and  allowing  streams  of  water  to  carry  it  to  pits, 
where,  having  settled  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  it  is  run 
into  moulds  to  be  subsequently  kiln-dried.  It  is  then  cut 
into  convenient-sized  blocks  and  shipped  for  the  manu- 
facture of  porcelain,  earthenware,  paper,  etc.,  as  well  as 
for  numerous  other  purposes  in  the  iron  industries,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  crucibles,  etc.  This  is  the  kaolin  of 
the  foundry,  being  the  name  given  by  the  Chinese  to  a 
similar  clay  found  in  China  and  used  by  them  in  making 
porcelain.  See  FELDSPAR  ;  KAOLIN  ;  DAUBING. 

Chinese  White-copper.— See  WHITE  ALLOYS. 

Chinese  Pakfong. — See  PACKFONG;  WHITE  AL- 
LOYS; "GERMAN-SILVER. 

Chinsing.— See  DRESSING. 

Chipper. — Castings,  when  lifted  out  of  the  sand,  are 
freed  from  burnt,  adhering  sand  by  the  cleaner;  after 
which,  by  means  of  hammers,  chisels,  and  files,  all  super- 
fluous metal,  as  heads,  gates,  fins,  etc.,  are  remoyed  by  the 
chipper. 

Chipping-piece. — A  facing  of  extra  metal,  allowed 
on  parts  of  a  casting  for  fitting  purposes.  When  at  the 
top  they  may  connect  with  the  pattern  ;  but  when  chip- 
ping-pieces  are  required  at  the  bottom  or  anywhere  inter- 
mediate, they  must  be  pinned  on  the  pattern  temporarily, 
and  the  pins  removed  while  ramming  proceeds.  The  pieces 
can  then  be  withdrawn  or  picked  out  after  the  pattern  has 
been  drawn  from  the  sand. 


Chloride.  100  Chucks. 

Chloride. — Compounds  of  great  importance  are 
formed  by  a  combination  of  chlorine  with  metals  and 
other  substances.  Most  of  the  chlorides  are  soluble  in 
water,  and  metals  enter  into  as  many  combinations  with 
chlorine  as  they  do  with  oxygen.  Chlorides  melt  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  and  are  more  easily  dissolved  and  fused 
than  are  their  corresponding  acids.  Chlorides  usually 
decompose  when  heated  in  a  current  of  hydrogen,  the  re- 
sult being  hydrochloric  acid  and  the  pure  metal.  Simple 
ignition  will  decompose  chlorides  of  noble  metals,  leaving 
the  uncombined  metal.  If  chlorides  are  heated  with  black 
oxide  of  manganese  and  sulphuric  acid,  the  chlorine  is 
eliminated. 

Chlorine  abounds  in  the  mineral  world,  chiefly  in  the 
metal  sodium,  in  salt,  etc.,  and  is  prepared  by  heating 
black  oxide  of  manganese  with  hydrochloric  acid — which 
forms  a  yellowish  transparent  gas  2J  times  heavier  than 
air.  Under  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres  it  is  condensed 
into  a  liquid  slightly  heavier  than  water  and  which  remains 
unfrozen  at  220°.  This  gas  unites  with  oxygen  to  form 
five  compounds:  with  hydrogen  it  forms  hydrochloric  acid; 
with  nitrogen,  an  explosive  of  great  power,  called  per. 
chloride  of  nitrogen;  and  it  forms  several  chlorides  with 
carbon. 

Chocks.— See  CHUCKS. 

Chromium  Steel. — The  effect  of  this  substance  is 
analogous  in  some  features  to  that  of  manganese;  in  others 
to  that  of  carbon  upon  steel,  imparting  a  fine  close  texture 
and  increasing  hardness  and  brittleness. 

Chucks  are  pieces  of  wood,  slightly  wedged,  to  be 
driven  fast  between  the  bars  of  a  flask  to  impart  stiffness 
to  the  bars;  or,  for  driving  down  below  the  straight  bars 
to  form  a  continuation  of  the  latter,  as  it  were,  into  parts 


Churning.  101  Clamp. 

which  extend  below  the  joint,  arid  which  must  be  lifted  out 
along  with  the  flask.  By  this  means  a  plain  flask  may  be 
made  to  correspond  to  any  and  every  form  of  joint  con- 
ceivable, and  the  task  of  carrying  a  deep  lift  is  much 
simplified.  This  useful  device  is  often  called  chocking. 

Churning1. — See  FEEDING. 
Cinder. — See  SLAG;  MILL-CINDER. 

Cinder-bed. — Sometimes  called  a  coke-bed;  a  means 
by  which  all  vents  are  provided  with  a  sure  outlet,  from 
the  mould,  through  the  spaces  formed  by  the  cinders,  and 
out  at  the  vent-pipes.  See  VENTING. 

Cinder-pig  is  pig-iron  obtained  by  treating  in  the 
blast-furnace  rich  slags  and  cinders  along  with  ores  or  pig. 
See  MILL-CINDER. 

Cire-Perdue  Process. — A  method  of  producing 
statuary,  etc.,  by  modelling  a  wax  figure  on  a  prepared 
core,  inclosing  the  wax  with  suitable  composition,  drying 
the  mould  and  melting  out  the  wax,  and  finally  filling  the 
space  with  metal.  See  STATUARY-FOUNDING. 

Cisterns. — A  tank,  artificially  constructed  for  holding 
liquids.  Foundry  cisterns  should  be  spacious  and  of  suf- 
ficient number  to  accommodate  every  need.  Their  effi- 
ciency is  enhanced  when  provided  with  a  ball-cock  which 
will  automatically  maintain  a  certain  height  of  water  at 
all  times,  with  no  possibility  of  flooding  the  foundry  floor. 

Clamp. — A  device  for  drawing  together  and  securely 
holding  two  or  more  objects,  such  as  two  parts  of  a  flask, 
core-box,  etc.  Besides  the  ordinary  ones  of  cast  and 
wrought  iron  which  may  be  seen  at  all  foundries,  there  are 


Clay.  102  Coagulate. 

a  considerable  number  of  patented  devices,  some  of  which 
have  very  ingenious  modes  of  adjustment.  The  Diamond 
Adjustable,  with  automatic  lock,  Hawley's  Sliding  Clamp 
with  excentric  head,  are  among  the  many  truly  good  in- 
ventions which  are  supplied  by  the  foundry  agents.  Called 
a  "cramp"  sometimes. 

Clay  is  a  term  of  uncertain  application  to  all  kinds  of 
earth  or  soil  which,  when  moistened,  become  plastic  and 
tenacious.  Common  clays  are  not  easily  distinguishable 
as  mineral  species;  but  it  is  apparent  that  nearly  all  have 
their  origin  in  the  decomposition  of  other  minerals,  chiefly 
consisting  of  alumina  in  combination  with  silica  and  water. 
See  FIRE-CLAY. 

Cleaner. — A  moulder's  tool,  and  frequently  styled  a 
"  lifter."  It  is  an  important  implement,  made  in  different 
lengths  and  widths,  principally  from  steel.  It  consists  of 
a  long  flat  blade,  to  slick  or  smooth  the  sides  of  confined 
webs;  one  end,  being  forged  to  a  toe  at  right-angles  with 
the  blade,  serves  to  lift  out  loose  sand  from  such  webs,  and 
also  to  smooth  the  bottom.  See  SLICKER. 

The  workman  who  removes  sand  and  cores  from  castings 
is  usually  styled  a  cleaner.  See  CHIPPER;  SAND-BLAST. 

Cleaning-barrel. — See  TUMBLING-BARREL. 
Clearance. — See  ALLOWANCE. 

Closing. — This  term  in  the  foundry  means  the  opera- 
tion of  placing  all  the  parts  composing  the  entire  mould  in 
their  respective  places.  A  green-sand  mould  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  "  closed  "  immediately  the  cope  or  top  part  has 
been  placed  thereon. 

Coagulate. — To  change  from  a  fluid  to  an  inspissated 
state;  to  concrete,  to  clot,  to  thicken. 


Coal.  103  Coal-dust. 

Coal. — The  bituminous  coal  is  a  substance  of  vegetable 
origin,  apparently  formed  from  plants  by  a  slow  decaying 
process,  going  on  without  access  of  air,  and  influenced  by 
moisture,  heat,  and  pressure.  As  is  the  case  in  all  vegetable 
matter  generally,  it  is  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
with  small  proportions  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  together 
with  more  or  less  earthy  and  saline  substances,  spoken  of 
commonly  as  inorganic  matter.  On  being  heated  in  the  air 
it  is  almost  consumed,  leaving  the  inorganic  components  as 
ashes;  but  when  heated  out  of  contact  with  the  air,  viz., 
subjected  to  destructive  distillation,  the  volatile  hydrogen 
is  driven  off,  with  some  carbon,  either  as  a  gas  or  as  a  tarry 
liquid,  and  the  residue  is  coke,  containing  carbon  only,  to 
some  extent  contaminated  with  the  impurities  originally 
present  in  the  coal. 

Anthracite  coal,  whilst  having  been  formed  similarly  to 
the  bituminous,  has  evidently  been  subjected  to  some  sort 
of  natural  distillation,  by  which  it  has  been  deprived  of 
nearly  all  the  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  of  the  original 
wood.  To  some  extent  it  is  coke,  formed  as  it  were  by  natu- 
ral agencies. 

The  specific  gravity  of  anthracite  coal  is  1.536,  and  of 
bituminous  1.280. 

One  cubic  foot  of  anthracite  coal  weighs  96  pounds;  of 
bituminous,  80  pounds. 

The  space  required  to  stow  away  one  ton  of  anthracite 
coal  is  40  cubic  feet ;  for  bituminous,  44.  See  COMBUSTION; 
FUEL. 

Coal-dust. — Commonly  called  sea-coal  facing  is  ground 
from  bituminous  coal  that  has  been  selected  for  its  freedom 
from  slate,  sulphur,  or  any  other  substance  of  a  deleterious 
nature.  When  this  dust  is  mixed  with  the  sand,  it  breaks 
up  and  separates  the  fusible  elements  contained  therein, 
and  that  which  is  not  separated  is  more  or  less  impregnated 


Coal-oil.  104  Cohesion. 

with  the  gas  produced.  Fusing  of  the  sand  is  by  this  means 
partially  prevented  by  reason  of  the  hydrogen  and  carbon 
which  the  sea-coal  contains.  Experience  teaches  just  how 
much  coal-dust  is  required  for  this  purpose ;  but  it  is  seldom 
that  more  than  one  of  coal  to  six  of  sand  can  be  used,  as 
any  higher  percentage  will  produce  a  too  open  mixture 
which  results  in  streaked  blotches  on  the  castings,  caused 
by  the  molten  iron  searching  out  the  surplus  coal  and 
consuming  it.  See  FACING-SAND;  FACING. 

Coal-oil.— See  PETROLEUM;  TAB. 
Coal-tar. — See  TAB. 

Coating  Metals. — Iron  castings  may  be  coated  with 
gold  or  silver  by  first  cleaning  and  then  boiling,  in  a  porce- 
lain vessel,  containing  water  12,  muriatic  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.2) 
1J,  iron  vitriol  2,  zinc  1,  mercury  12.  A  layer  of  mercury 
is  soon  deposited  on  the  iron,  upon  which  the  gold  amalgam 
may  be  distributed.  For  silvering,  the  iron  must  be  first 
coated  with  copper,  and  the  silver  applied  in  the  leaf  or  by 
means  of  amalgam.  See  ZINC  COATING  ;  TINNING;  SIL- 
VEBING;  GILDING. 

Cobalt. — This  substance  bears  in  many  respects  a  close 
resemblance  to  nickel,  and  is  often  found  associated  in  nat- 
ure with  that  metal.  It  is  white,  brittle,  and  tenacious, 
having  a  high  melting-point ;  specific  gravity,  8.5.  Its  prin- 
cipal ores  are  white  cobalt,  consisting  of  cobalt  44,  arsenic 
55,  sulphur  0.50.  All  the  ores  of  cobalt  contain  more  or 
less  nickel.  See  ABSENIC;  NICKEL. 

Cohesion  is  that  power  by  which  the  particles  of 
bodies  are  held  together.  The  absolute  cohesion  of  solids 
is  measured  by  the  force  necessary  to  tear  them  asunder. 
See  TENACITY;  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


Coke.  105  Coke-fork. 

Coke  is  the  residue  resulting  from  the  destructive 
distillation  of  soft  or  bituminous  coal,  and  may  be  classed 
as  an  impure  sub-variety  of  carbon,  which,  from  a  chemical 
point  of  view,  may  be  classed  either  with  graphite  or  char- 
coal, or  perhaps  between  the  two.  It  is  made  in  ovens  or 
in  heaps,  where  the  volatile  matters  are  expelled,  leaving 
the  coke  we  use  for  melting  purpose. 

About  2240  pounds  of  bituminous  coal  is  required  to  pro- 
duce from  1000  to  1400  pounds  of  good  dry  coke. 

The  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  necessitated  the  use 
of  retorts,  into  which  bituminous  coal  principally  is  charged 
and  heated  to  redness  by  an  external  fire.  At  a  moderate 
heat  tar  and  oil  are  produced,  but  at  a  high  temperature 
gases  are  formed  in  large  quantities.  The  principal  prod- 
ucts of  this  destructive  distillation  are  coal-tar,  steam, 
ammonia,  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  carburetted 
hydrogen,  olefiant  gas,  and  a  solid,  friable,  carbonaceous 
mass,  which  is  known  as  gas-coke. 

Coke  specially  manufactured  for  smelting  purposes,  of  a 
good  quality,  is  far  superior  to  any  kind  of  coal  for  melting 
in  the  cupola,  as  it  melts  faster  and  produces  hotter  iron. 
The  best  qualities  are  distinguished  by  their  hardness, 
emitting  a  ringing  sound  when  struck;  a  freedom  from 
what  is  called  smut,  this  being  only  partially  burned  at 
such  parts — exposing  a  dark  gray,  fine  cellular  mass  when 
fractured,  with  a  silvery  gloss  overspreading  the  whole  outer 
surface. 

The  specific  gravity  of  coke  is  1.000 ;  one  cubic  foot  weighs 
62 1  pounds,  and  the  space  required  to  stow  one  ton  is  72 
cubic  feet.  See  COAL. 


Coke-fork. — A  very  effective  and  useful  substitute 
for  the  shovel  in  handling  coke  generally,  and  for  charging 
the  cupola  in  particular.  Being  made  with  from  10  to  14 


Cold-blast.  106  Column. 

long  steel  prongs,  they  take  nothing  but  clean  coke,  leaving 
the  dirt  behind,  and  thus  saving  the  use  of  a  riddle. 

Cold-blast.    See  HOT  AND  COLD  BLAST. 

Cold-short. — Iron  or  steel  is  termed  " cold-short" 
when  it  fractures  at  the  edges  if  rolled  or  hammered  at  a 
temperature  below  a  dull  red  heat. 

Cold-shots,  also  called  "  cold-shuts,"  -are  seams  which, 
on  flat  castings,  are  sometimes  formed  by  local  accumu- 
lations of  dirt  and  dust.  Another  source  of  cold-shots 
is  when  the  metal  enters  in  straggling  and  divergent 
streams,  leaving  portions  of  metal  to  partially  congeal 
at  places  before  the  whole  surface  is  covered.  At  the  final 
meeting  the  junction  is  an  imperfect  one,  because  of  the 
difference  in  temperature  of  the  two  portions  of  metal. 
Castings,  poured  vertically,  that  have  heavy  adjoining  part-s, 
will  sometimes  show  very  deep  scars  of  this  nature,  because 
of  the  dead  stoppage  which  occurs  whilst  such  parts  are 
being  filled.  This  happens  sometimes  in  cylinders  with 
heavy  connections  ;  the  partial  stoppage  gives  time  for  the 
surface  scum  to  congeal,  and  metal  simply  flows  back  and 
covers  it.  When  all  the  gating  is  from  the  top,  this  casu- 
alty is  not  likely  to  occur.  See  FAIKT-BU^. 

Cold-tinning.— See  TINNING. 

Column. — A  pillar  or  post,  usually  made  either  round 
or  rectangular  in  form,  and  employed  as  supports  for  roofs, 
entablatures,  or  other  superstructures.  The  members  of  a 
column  are  capital,  shaft,  and  base,  with  an  abacus  for 
the  capital,  and  sometimes  a  plinth  for  the  base. 

Columns  are  of  wood,  stone,  cast  iron,  malleable  iron,  and 
steel.  Made  of  the  latter  they  are  now  constructed  in  seg- 


Colliau  Cupola. 


10? 


Colliau  Cupola. 


ments,  riveted  together,  and  shipped  as  promptly  sa  cast 
iron  ones  are  made  in  the  foundry.  The  change  from  cast- 
iron  to  steel  has  seriously  affected  the  architectural  foundry 
interests  and  many  firms  are  at  present  suffering  severely 
on  account  of  the  innovation. 

The  following  table  shows  the  weight  of  one  foot  in 
length  of  square  columns  one  inch  thick,  and  the  number 
of  inches  contained  in  end  section  of  each  column,  by 
which  means  the  weight  of  one  lineal  foot  of  any  other 
casting  answering  to  the  total  inches  given  is  obtained  at 
once. 


Dim.  of  col. 
in  inches. 

6X6 

7X7 

8X8 

9X9 

10X10 

11X11 

12X12 

13X13 

14X14 

15X15 

Weight  of  1 
foot  in  Ibs. 

63 

75 

87 

100 

113 

135 

138 

150 

163 

174 

No.  of  inches 
con.  in  sec. 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

Dim.  of  col. 
in  inches. 

16X16 

17X17 

18X18 

19X19 

20X20 

21X21 

22X22 

23x23 

24X24 

288 

Weight  of  1 
foot  in  Ibs. 

187 

200 

213 

225 

238 

250 

263 

275 

No.  of  inches 
con.  in  sec. 

60 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

84 

88 

92 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  IN  POUNDS  OF  ONE 
LINEAL  FOOT  OF  ROUND  COLUMNS  ONE  INCH 
THICK. 


Outside  diam.  of 
column  in  in. 

4 

6 

8 

10 

89 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

Weight  of  on  ft. 
in  length  in  Ibs. 

30 

49 

69 

108 

128 

148 

167 

187 

206 

226 

Colliau  Cupola. — The  lower  portion  of  the  "Col- 
liau" Cupola  is  composed  of  two  sheet-iron  shells,  the 
inner  shells  being  made  very  heavy  and  of  the  same  size  as 
the  stack  proper;  the  outer  shell  encircles  the  inner  one  and 


Combustion.  108  Combustion. 

is  made  air  tight,  forming  the  wind-chest,  which  varies  in 
size  according  to  the  size  of  furnace.  In  the  outer  shell 
are  arranged  two  doors  or  shutters  held  in  position  by  tap- 
bolts,  also  made  air  tight,  which  may  be  removed  and  again 
replaced  after  cleaning,  should  any  dirt  or  slag  accumulate 
in  the  wind-chest. 

Opposite  each  tuyere  also  is  a  sliding  air-tight  gate  with 
peep-hole,  and  in  the  bevel  top  is  furnished  a  brass  nipple 
to  connect  hose  from  blast-meter  into  the  wind-chest 
or  chamber.  The  blast  is  introduced  through  two  flanged 
openings,  one  on  either  side  as  shown,  and  reaches  the  melt- 
ing point  through  two  sets  of  six  tuyeres  each,  arranged  to 
concentrate  the  blast. 

The  tuyeres  are  so  constructed  that  the  melted  iron  in 
its  downward  course  cannot  pass  through  them  into  the 
air-chamber. 

The  furnace,  as  a  whole,  is  simple  in  its  construction. 
There  is  no  complicated  machinery  or  parts  to  get  out  of 
order,  and  consequently  does  not  require  any  more  atten- 
tion or  repairs  than  a  common  cupola. 

Combustion  means  the  process  of  burning,  and 
usually  consists  in  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmos- 
phere with  the  constituents  of  the  combustible  substances. 
The  combustion  of  coal  is  caused  by  this  oxygen  passing 
into  a  state  of  chemical  union  with  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen contained  in  the  coal ;  carbonic  acid  and  water-vapor 
being  formed  thereby.  In  all  ordinary  cases  of  combustion 
the  amount  of  heat  set  free  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
oxygen  brought  into  action,  rather  than  on  that  of  the 
body  burned.  Hence,  the  combustible  which  united  with 
the  most  oxygen  while  burning  gives  off  the  most  heat. 
Thus,  hydrogen  in  burning,  takes  up  weight  for  weight, 
three  times  as  much  oxygen  as  carbon  does,  and  gives  oif 
three  times  as  much  heat  as  a  consequence.  The  complete 


Common  Pewter.  109  Compound. 

burning  of  a  combustible  body  requires  the  consumption 
of  the  same  quantity  of  oxygen  whether  the  process  be 
rapid  or  slow,  the  amount  of  heat  being  the  same  in  both 
cases.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  intensity  of  the  heat 
is  governed  by  the  rapidity  of  the  combustion. 

Heat  would  be  liberated  from  the  burning  of  a  pound  of 
coal  in  ten  minutes — six  times  as  fast  as  if  its  combus- 
tion occupied  an  hour.  This  explains  why  the  blacksmith 
blows  his  tires,  and  also  why  blowing-engines  are  employed 
at  the  cupola,  blast-furnace,  etc.;  the  time  of  combustion 
is  shortened  by  their  use,  with  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  degree  of  heat  obtained  ;  besides,  this  extreme  blast 
serves  to  expel  from  the  fire  all  products  of  combustion 
which  would  retard  it  if  allowed  to  gather  therein.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  borne  in  mind  that  too  much  air  is  detri- 
mental to  the  burning  process,  as  it  serves  to  convey  away 
the  heat,  thus  cooling  the  fuel  and  hindering  the  rate  of 
combustion. 

It  is  thought  by  many,  that  the  more  air  is  forced  into 
the  cupola,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  melting.  From  the 
above  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is  true  only  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent. Time  is  required  to  elevate  the  temperature  of  the 
air  supplied  to  the  point  that  it  will  enter  into  combustion; 
if  more  than  this  is  supplied  it  absorbs  heat  rapidly,  re- 
duces the  temperature,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  retards  com- 
bustion. 

The  importance  of  supplying  the  exact  quantity  of  air, 
neither  too  much  or  too  little,  cannot  be  overestimated. 
See  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA  ;  CUPOLA  ;  BLAST- 
GAUGE  ;  BLOWERS. 

Common  Pewter. — See  PEWTER. 

Compound. — To  mingle  or  unite  two  or  more  ingre- 
dients in  one  mass,  or  a  substance  composed  of  two  or 
more  elements  joined  by  chemical  affinity. 


Compressed  Castings.  110  Congelation. 

Compressed.  Castings. — This  process  is  for  mak- 
ing fine  and  artistic  castings  in  brass,  bronze,  German-silver, 
aluminum,  etc.,  and  consists  of  preparing  hard  moulds  con- 
taining the  impress  of  the  articles  to  be  cast,  the  outside 
edges  of  which  are  square,  so  that  they  may  be  packed  one 
on  the  other,  and,  when  so  packed,  the  gate  of  each  leads 
to  a  central  sprue.  These  are  closely  packed  in  an  air-tight 
box.  An  opening  in  the  cover-plate  of  the  box  directly 
connected  with  the  sprue  leads  into  a  cylindrical  reservoir 
containing  the  molten  metal.  This  cylinder  is  lined 
with  asbestos  felt,  the  hole  into  the  sprue  being  also 
covered  with  it,  preventing  the  exit  of  the  metal  from  the 
reservoir  until  the  proper  time.  A  piston,  covered  also 
with  asbestos,  fits  closely  into  the  cylinder,  and  pressure 
may  be  applied  to  it  by  hand  through  the  action  of  a  lever, 
rack  and  pinion,  a  screw  or  by  other  means.  The  reservoir 
being  filled  with  the  proper  quantity  of  molten  metal  and 
the  piston  entered  into  the  cylinder,  connection  may  be 
opened  between  the  mould  and  the  vacuum-tank,  causing 
the  air  in  the  mould  to  be  drawn  out,  and  at  the  same  time 
pressure  of  any  required  degree  may  be  applied  to  the 
piston.  This  pressure  bursts  that  portion  of  the  asbestos 
lining  that  lies  immediately  over  the  hole  in  the  cover- 
plate,  and  the  metal  is  instantaneously  shot  into  every  por- 
tion of  the  matrix  in  the  mould. 

Compressed  Steel.— See  PKESSING  FLUID  STEEL. 
Concave  and  Convex  Moulds.— See  MEDALS. 

Congelation. — The  transition  of  a  liquid  to  a  solid 
state  in  consequence  of  the  abstraction  of  heat,  or  through 
the  effect  of  pressure.  Metals,  oil,  water,  etc.,  congeal 
when  they  change  from  a  fluid  to  the  solid  state.  In  the 
foundry,  it  is  common  to  term  these  phenomena  as  "  set- 
ting," "freezing/' 


Contraction.  Ill  Conveyers. 

Contraction. — See  SHRINKAGE. 

Converter. — A  pear-shaped  vessel  resting  on  trun- 
nions, and  provided  with  hydraulic  apparatus  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rotating  the  same  through  an  angle  of  180°,  or 
thereabouts.  It  consists  of  an  outer  casing  of  wrought-iron 
plates,  held  together  by  rivets,  and  is  suspended  by  means 
of  a  strong  steel  band  carrying  two  trunnions  which  is 
secured  on  the  body  of  the  converter  at  its  widest  part. 
The  trunnions  run  in  bearings  connected  with  uprights, 
one  of  them  being  solid,  and  the  other  hollow  ;  the  latter 
serves  as  a  passage  for  the  blast,  and  carries  a  gear-wheel. 

It  is  important  that  the  lining  of  a  converter  be  material 
of  the  most  refractory  character.  Sometimes  fire-brick  is 
used,  but  chiefly  gannister,  which  is  found  to  be  better  for 
this  purpose  than  any  other  substance.  The  bottom  of  the 
converter  is  flat  and  contains  a  tuyere-box,  or  cylindrical 
chamber  connected  by  a  curved  pipe  with  the  hollow  trun- 
nion. The  tuyeres  are  round,  tapered  fire-bricks,  each 
containing  seven  holes  \  inch  in  diameter.  From  5  to  7  of 
these  tuyeres  are  used,  their  lower  ends  protruding  through 
a  guard-plate  in  the  top  of  the  air-chamber ;  the  vertical 
position  being  maintained  by  stops  which  bear  against  hori- 
zontal arms  that  can  be  moved  aside  when  any  of  the  bricks 
are  to  be  replaced,  thus  saving  the  necessity  of  removing 
the  bottom  of  the  converter.  To  turn  the  converter,  a 
direct  acting  water-pressure  engine  is  provided,  the  piston- 
rod  of  which  carries  a  rack  which  gears  into  the  wheel  on 
the  trunnion.  See  BESSEMER  STEEL  ;  GANNISTER. 

Conveyers. — Conveying  machinery  is  now  to  be  found 
in  successful  operation  in  mills,  mines,  breweries,  packing- 
houses, sugar  refineries,  coal-yards,  boat-landings,  brick, 
tile,  and  stone  yards,  in  some  machine-shops,  but  in  very 
few  foundries.  The  increasing  demand  for  moulding  ma- 


Cope.  112  Copper. 

cliinery  has  made  it  absolutely  necessary  that  some  form 
of  conveyer  be  used  in  the  foundry,  not  only  to  carry  the 
enormous  quantity  of  sand  used  to  the  moulders,  but  to 
carry  it  hence  from  off  the  foundry  floor  to  be  tempered 
and  screened  for  use,  and  by  this  means  utilize  the  space 
for  moulds  that  would  otherwise  be  required  for  storing 
and  mixing  sand.  The  endless  open-trough  conveyer,  made 
of  roller  carrier  chain,  or  some  of  the  many  forms  of  spiral 
conveyers,  are  eminently  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Cope.  —  (1)  The  top  part  of-  a  set  of  flasks  (see 
FLASKS).  (2)  The  brick  structure  in  which  the  outer 
surface  of  a  loam-mould  is  formed.  Usually  a  cope  is  built 
to  a  uniform  thickness  of  one  brick  lengthwise,  and,  if 
necessary,  are  further  strengthened  with  binding-plates  set 
therein  at  intervals.  See  BINDING-PLATE;  COPE-RING; 
LOAM-MOULDING. 

Cope-ring1. — A  cast-iron  ring  for  the  purpose  of  car- 
rying the  cope  of  a  loam-mould.  The  inside  diameter  is 
made  large  enough  to  clear  a  tapered  seating  formed  below, 
or  past  the  mould  at  the  bottom,  the  impression  of  which 
is  carried  in  the  brick  cope  built  upon  the  ring.  See 
SEATING;  GUIDE;  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Copper. — This  useful  metal  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  times.  With  tin  it  no  doubt  formed  the  first 
metallic  compound,  and  was  extensively  employed  by  the 
ancients  in  the  production  of  ornaments,  statuary,  domes- 
tic utensils,  and  implements  of  war.  Pliny  informs  us  that 
the  Roman  supply  was  drawn  from  Cyprus,  the  metal  be- 
ing called  cyprium  for  that  reason.  The  latter  word  was 
corrupted  to  cuprum,  from  whence  is  derived  the  English, 
copper. 


Copper.  113  Copper. 

The  color  of  copper  is  a  brilliant  red,  its  specific  gravity 
8.788,  its  tenacity  only  somewhat  below  that  of  iron,  and 
higher  than  either  silver  or  gold.  Copper  melts  at  2550°; 
its  malleability  and  ductility  is  high,  takes  a  remarkable 
degree  of  polish,  ranks  next  to  silver  as  a  conductor  of 
electricity,  is  hardly  affected  by  dry  air,  but,  on  exposure 
to  a  damp  atmosphere,  a  green  carbonate  gathers  on  its 
surface. 

This  metal  is  widely  distributed  throughout  nature,  oc- 
curring in  ores,  soils,  and  waters — in  fact,  it  is  almost  as  uni- 
versal as  iron.  In  Lake  Superior  the  metal  occurs  native, 
and  in  some  instances  irregular  masses  exceeding  100  tons 
in  weight  are  found. 

Out  of  nearly  a  dozen  different  ores  cuprite,  or  red  oxide, 
contains  the  most  metal — about  80  per  cent  when  pure — 
the  rest  yielding  smaller  quantities.  Chrysolica,  a  hydrat- 
ed  silicate  of  copper  found  in  Chili,  Missouri,  and  Wiscon- 
sin, yields  only  30  per  cent.  The  Cornish  ores  consist  of 
copper  pyrites,  a  sulphide  of  copper  and  iron. 

There  are  three  ways  of  obtaining  copper  from  its  ores, 
the  dry,  or  pyro-metallurgical,  the  wet,  or  hydro-metallur- 
gical, and  the  electro-metallurgical;  but  the  two  former  are 
the  methods  generally  employed.  The  dry  method,  or 
smelting,  is  invariably  pursued  when  the  ores  contain  over 
5  per  cent  of  copper;  for  a  lower  grade  than  this  the  wet 
process  only  is  profitable.  Swansea  and  Lancashire  are  the 
chief  copper-smelting  centres  in  Great  Britain.  The  ores 
are  selected  with  a  view  to  special  treatment,  according 
to  their  character.  The  first  operation  is  calcining  in 
reverberatory  furnaces,  where  the  ore  is  spread  8  inches 
deep  on  the  bottom  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  air 
and  fire  at  a  dull -red  heat,  being  frequently  turned 
over  to  expose  every  part  to  their  combined  influence  for 
from  12  to  24  hours,  according  to  the  proportion  of  sul- 
phide of  iron,  silica,  etc.,  contained  in  the  charge.  The 


Copper.  114  Copper. 

sulphur  by  this  action  is  partly  burned  off  and  forms  sul- 
phurous and  sulphuric  acids;  partially  volatilized  in  the 
pure  state;  arsenic  volatilizes  and  is  oxidized;  and  some 
sulphur  from  the  copper  and  iron  forms  oxides  by  combin- 
ing with  the  oxygen.  The  calcined  ore  is  then  fused  in 
the  reverberatory  ore-fusing  furnace,  which  is  provided 
with  a  hopper  through  which  to  effect  the  charging,  the 
charge  usually  consisting  of  calcined  ore  2600,,  metal-slag 
from  previous  operations  800,  cobbing  250.  About  five 
hours'  hard  firing  reduces  this  to  a  fluid  mass,  which,  after 
being  well  skimmed,  is  tapped  into  perforated  iron  boxes, 
which  are  suspended  in  cisterns  50  inches  square  and  80 
inches  deep,  full  of  water.  At  this  stage  the  compound 
analyzes  at :  copper  33,  sulphur  29,  iron  33,  and  is  termed 
granulated  or  coarse  metal.  It  is  subsequently  recalcined, 
in  a  similar  manner  as  for  the  ore,  in  4-ton  charges. 
About  24  hours,  at  a  gradually  increasing  heat,  up  to  a 
bright  red,  prepares  the  metal  for  running  off  into  cubs, 
where  it  is  treated  to  another  bath  of  water,  after  which  it 
is  again  fused,  and  by  this  treatment  the  silica  and  oxide 
of  iron  combine  to  form  slags,  which  are  skimmed  off  and 
the  metal  again  tapped,  but  in  this  case  it  is  run  into  sand- 
moulds.  The  resulting  compound  is  now  called  blue  metal, 
and  consists  of  copper  58,  sulphur  20,  iron  12. 

It  is  now  ready  for  a  further  treatment  by  roasting,  in 
charges  of  3  tons.  The  roasting  furnace  is  provided  with 
side  charging  arrangements  and  additional  air-holes  in  the 
bridge,  through  which  a  free  current  of  air  is  admitted, 
passing  over  the  fused  mass,  which  is  kept  in  a  semi-fluid 
state  for  about  24  hours,  during  which  time  much  more  of 
the  sulphur  has  been  driven  off,  and  the  iron  turned  into 
slag  by  its  union  with  silica,  the  latter  being  constantly 
skimmed  off  as  it  is  formed. 

At  this  stage,  when  other  impurities  have  been  driven 
off,  it  has  become  a  sulphide  of  copper,  and  must  receive 


Copper.  115  Copper. 

still  another  24  hours'  roasting  to  eliminate  the  sulphur, 
after  which  it  is  again  tapped  into  sand-moulds,  forming, 
according  to  quality,  the  several  kinds  of  copper  known  as 
blister,  coarse,  pimpled,  and  bed  copper.  Ingots  showing 
a  smooth,  hollow  surface  indicate  the  presence  of  tin,  and 
are  called  bed;  a  pimply  surface  indicates  sulphur;  scales 
of  oxide  on  the  surface  indicate  the  blister  quality,  which 
is  esteemed  as  ready  for  refining,  and,  in  this  state,  con- 
sists of  copper  98.1,  iron  .7,  manganese,  cobalt,  and  nickel 
.3,  arsenic  and  tin  .4,  sulphur  .2. 

The  Siemens  Kegenerative  Furnace  is  esteemed  as  the 
best  for  refining.  Its  form  is  reverberatory,  almost  like  the 
roasting-furnace,  except  that  the  bed  inclines  towards  the 
reservoir  at  the  end,  where,  by  means  of  a  door,  the. refined 
metal  may  be  skimmed  off  and  dipped  out.  When  the 
metal  has  collected,  it  is  subjected  to  polling  by  thrusting 
a  piece  of  green  oak  to  the  bottom  and  holding  it  there. 
Dipping  tests  by  the  refiner  indicate  when  the  metal  has 
attained  the  proper  degree  of  fibre.  When  the  polling  ceases 
the  surface  is  at  once  covered  with  charcoal,  and  a  little 
lead  added  if  the  copper  is  required  for  rolling  or  forging; 
but  no  lead  is  employed  when  the  best  quality  of  commer- 
cial copper  is  made.  See  REFINING. 

The  ivet  process  of  grinding  and  roasting,  by  which 
means  sulphuric  acid  is  formed,  and  attacks  the  oxide  of 
copper.  The  sulphate  resulting  from  this  treatment  is  dis- 
solved, and  the  copper  precipitated  by  peroxide  of  iron. 

Dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  muriatic  acids  scarcely  act  upon 
copper;  boiling  oil  of  vitriol  attacks  it,  with  evolution  of 
sulphurous  anhydride.  Nitric  acid,  even  dilute,  dissolves  it 
readily,  with  evolution  of  nitric  acid. 

Copper  unites  readily  with  almost  all  other  metals  in 
certain  proportions,  and  not  a  few  of  its  compounds  are  of 
the  highest  importance  in  the  arts;  it  may  be  said  that 
copper  is  even  more  important  and  valuable  as 


Copperas.  116  Copperas. 

ent  element  in  a  large  number  of  alloys  than  it  could  pos- 
sibly be  as  a  pure  metal.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  make 
castings  free  from  blow-holes  with  pure  copper.  An  excel- 
lent remedy  for  this  is  to  flux  with  about  one  ounce  of  zinc 
to  each  four  pounds  of  copper. 

Copper  combines  easily  with  gold  in  all  proportions,  with 
the  result  of  increased  fusibility  and  hardness  ;  but  the 
ductility  is  impaired  as  the  hardness  increases,  its  greatest 
degree  of  hardness  occurring  when  the  proportion  of  copper 
is  -fa.  The  increased  fusibility  of  the  alloy  admits  of  its 
being  used  as  a  solder  for  gold. 

Bronze,  brass,  and  German-silver  are  the  principal  alloys 
in  which  copper  enters  as  a  chief  ingredient.  With  zinc,  it 
forms  brass  ;  with  lead,  pot,  metal ;  with  zinc  and  nickel, 
German-silver ;  with  zinc,  tin,  and  arsenic,  tombac ;  with 
tin,  bronze. 

The  aluminum  bronzes  consist  of  pure  copper  alloyed 
with  from  If  to  10  per  cent  aluminum.  Phosphor  bronze 
has  from  2J  to  15  per  cent  tin  and  from  |  to  2J  per 
cent  phosphorus,  according  to  what  it  may  be  required 
for. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  very  numerous  and  excellent 
copper  alloys  for  manufacturing  purposes,  in  which  the 
three  metals,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead,  are  mixed  with  it  in  vary- 
ing quantities;  and  others  again  in  which  sulphur,  bismuth, 
antimony,  cobalt,  nickel,  silver,  iron,  etc.,  are  employed  in 
small  proportions.  See  BRASS;  BRONZE;  GERMAN-SILVER; 
ZINC  ;  LEAD;  POT-METAL;  TOMBAC;  ALUMINUM-BRONZE; 
PHOSPHOR-BEONZE;  SILVER;  ALLOYS;  SOLDERS;  FONTAIN- 
MOREAU'S  BRONZES;  MUSIC-METAL. 

Copperas  (Green  copperas). — The  commercial  name 
for  sulphate  of  iron,  a  compound  of  the  protoxide  of  iron 
with  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  largely  manufactured  from  iron 
pyrites,  which  furnishes  by  oxidation  both  the  acid  and  the 


Core.  117  Core-barrel. 

base.     It  is  often  a  beautiful  mineral,  the  crystals  being 
a  very  perfect  shape.     See  SULPHUR. 

Core. — The  inner  portion  of  a  mould,  partially  or  wholly 
surrounded  with  metal.  It  may  be  composed  of  greensand, 
dry-sand,  loam,  or  iron  ;  the  latter  usually  consisting  of  a 
tapered  chill  with  some  covering  of  carbon,  as  tar,  etc.,  to 
protect  it  from  the  action  of  the  molten  metal. 

The  Anti-chill  Core  Compound  Company,  Peoria,  111., 
explain  their  core  as  follows: 

"Instead  of  the  present  process  of  using  a  sand  core,  we 
use  a  metal  core  made  of  cold-rolled  steel  shafting  of  the 
same  size  as  the  shaft  on  which  the  casting  is  intended  to 
be  run  or  used,  turning  out  the  castings  ready  for  use,  there- 
by saving  from  50  to  75  per  cent  on  the  dollar  in  machine- 
finishing  labor,  such  as  boring,  drilling,  key-seating,  feather- 
ing, etc.,  required  when  the  sand  core  is  used.  This  metal 
core  before  using,  is  coated  by  dipping  into  our  compound, 
which  prevents  the  molten  metal  from  adhering  to  the 
core,  and  also  prevents  all  chilling,  blowing,  straining, 
cracking,  etc.,  of  the  iron  or  casting." 

Core-arbor. — A  central  rectangular  beam,  or  core  bar, 
to  which  are  cast  on,  or  bolted  thereto,  wings  which  corre- 
spond in  their  conformation  to  the  shape  of  mould  or  core 
to  be  made  thereon.  Such  arbors  are  employed  for  carry- 
ing the  cores  of  pipes  and  columns,  round  or  square,  espe- 
cially when  made  in  greensand.  See  CORE  IRON*. 

Core-barrel. — A  tube  or  cylinder  of  cast  or  wrought 
iron,  provided  with  a  gudgeon  at  each  end,  on  which  to  re- 
volve while  the  core  is  formed  upon  it.  The  common 
barrel  has  holes  cast  or  drilled  at  intervals  throughout  its 
length,  to  permit  a  ,free  escape  for  the  gases,  which,  when 
the  casting  is  poured,  are  copiously  emitted  from  the  straw 
rope  and  surrounding  loam.  See  ORDNANCE;  VENTS. 


Core  box.  1 1 8  Core-lathe. 

Core-box. — A  general  term  applying  to  all  devices 
for  forming  cores,  but  more  correctly  to  those  which  the 
pattern  constructs  out  of  wood.  A  matrix  may  be  formed 
in  the  sand  in  which  to  ram  a  core,  or  a  brick  cope  can  be 
constructed  in  loam  for  that  purpose.  Contrivances  of  such 
a  character  can  scarcely  come  under  the  head  of  core-boxes, 
yet  they  answer  the  same  end.  See  SPINDLE. 

Core-compound. — A  substitute  offered  by  various 
patentees  for  flour,  resin,  molasses,  sawdust,  or  other  sub- 
stances commonly  employed  for  stiffening,  hardening,  and 
venting  cores.  It  is  claimed  for  most  of  these  compounds 
that  they  give  body  to  the  sand,  burn  without  smoke  or 
smell,  are  always  uniform  and  ready  for  use;  that  they  do 
not  blow,  they  rap  out  easily;  and,  last  but  not  least,  that 
they  are  cheaper  than  any  of  the  several  things  mentioned 
above.  There  certainly  is  one  advantage  in  these  prepared 
compounds  :  once  the  exact  quantity  for  effective  use  is 
ascertained,  the  too  common  annoyance  of  too  much  or  too 
little  flour,  etc.,  is  obviated  to  the  sensible  advantage  of  all 
concerned.  See  FLOUR;  ROSIN;  MOLASSES;  VENTING. 

Core  Iron. — A  core  iron  may  consist,  of  a  cast  grate 
with  pricker  extensions  for  binding  all  parts  of  the  entire 
core  to  one  common  core  iron;  or,  it  may  be  one  of  many 
which,  being  set  and  rammed  within  the  sand  contrariwise 
throughout  the  core,  partially  answers  the  purpose  of  a 
grate  or  other  contrivance — in  which  instance  they  are 
often  designated  as  "  tie-rods,"  from  the  fact  that,  in  dry 
cores  especially,  the  sand  clings  to  the  inclosed  iron  and 
partakes  of  its  strength.  See  COKE-ARBOR. 

Core-lathe  is  the  arrangement  employed  for  covering 
a  core-barrel  with  the  requisite  material  and  fashioning  a 
core  upon  its  outer  surface.  It  consists  of  a  pair  of  stands 


Core-nails.  119  Core-print. 

or  trestles  having  V-shaped  notches  or  semicircles  on  their 
upper  edges  in  which  to  rest  the  trunnions  of  a  core- 
barrel,  or  perhaps  to  receive  a  turned  depression  in  the 
core-barrel  itself.  A  handle  or  crank  at  the  end  serves  to 
revolve  the  barrel  while  the  core-maker  pays  out  the  straw 
rope  upon  it.  A  subsequent  coat  of  clay,  followed  by  an- 
other of  loam,  is  fashioned  by  means  of  a  sweep-board  or 
templet  at  the  back,  the  ends  of  which  rest  on  the  trestles. 
The  core  is  thus  shaped  to  the  outline  of  the  board,  the 
diameter  being  regulated  by  the  distance  at  which  it  is 
placed  from  the  axis.  See  CORE-BARREL. 

Core-nails. — A  cheap  description  of  cut-nails  made 
specially  for  foundry  purposes.  Many  founders  seem  to 
be  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  these  useful  substitutes  for 
the  best  nails,  and  permit  the  inordinate  use  of  finishing 
and  other  nails,  which,  although  they  cost  much  more,  are 
not  even  as  good  for  the  purpose  as  common  ones.  See 
NAILS. 

Core-oven. — See  OVEST. 

Core-plate. — A  plate  of  either  cast  or  wrought  iron, 
on  which  to  convey  green  cores  to  the  oven.  A  very  good 
plate  for  this  purpose  is  made  by  riveting  light  angle-iron 
to  thin  sheet  iron.  These  are  much  superior  to  cast  iron, 
and  cost  no  more  to  make. 

Core-print.— A  tapered  boss  on  a  pattern  or  model, 
indicating  the  place  where  a  hole  corresponding  with  it  in 
size  and  shape  must  be  made  in  the  casting.  A  print  of 
this  description  is  frequently  termed  a  "  seating."  These 
prints  should  always  be  as  large  as  the  intended  hole,  at  the 
point  of  contact  with  the  pattern,  tapering  a  little  from 
thence  outwards,  just  sufficient  for  a  clean  draw  from  the 
sand. 


Core-sand.  120  Core-wash. 

That  end  of  the  core  which  enters  the  print  is  called  the 
"print-end." 

When  castings,  as  columns,  pipes,  etc.,  are  cast  horizon- 
tally, the  prints  which  guide  and  support  the  core  in  that 
position  are  naturally  styled  "  bearings."  See  SEATING. 

Core-sand  is  sand  possessing  qualities  that  will  favor 
the  production  of  a  good  sound  core  with  the  minimum 
quantity  of  gas-producing  substances  in  its  composition; 
and  that  will  leave  the  casting  clean  and  free  from  scars, 
with  comparatively  no  expense  for  labor.  To  that  end 
sands  should  be  chosen  which  contain  the  least  possible 
proportion  of  alumina  and  organic  matter.  The  requisite 
consistency  can  be  temporarily  imparted  by  substances 
which,  while  they  stiffen  the  core  sufficient  for  handling, 
are  acted  upon  by  the  molten  metal,  burning  the  artificial 
substance  out,  and  leaving  the  sand  as  incohesive  as  it  was 
in  its  original  state. '  Silica  sands,  beach,  and  river  sands, 
are  eminently  useful  for  this  purpose,  and  even  indifferent 
clayey  sands  may  be  much  improved,  if  subjected  to  the 
process  of  washing,  to  eliminate  foreign  substances  there- 
from before  using.  See  SAND-WASHING;  FLOUR;  MOLAS- 
SES; GLUE. 

Core-stove. — An  oven  in  which  to  dry  cores.  See 
OVEN. 

Core-wash. —  A  special  manufacture,  intended  to  su- 
persede the  ordinary  blackings  mixed  in  the  foundry. 

This  wash  is  a  preparation  of  black  lead  and  other 
materials.  It  makes  a  hard  skin  or  veneer  on  the  mould, 
which  does  not  rub  off  nor  run  before  the  molten  metal 
while  the  latter  is  flowing  into  the  mould,  and  conse- 
quently the  castings  come  out  "sound,  smooth,  and  per- 
fect." The  wash  is  applied  with  a  brush  to  the  mould, 


Corrosion.  121  Corundum. 

and  when  a  very  smooth  surface  is  desired  on  the  castings, 
it  is  applied  before  drying  and  smoothed  with  a  slicker; 
while  for  ordinary  work  the  wash  can  be  used  before  or 
after  it  is  dried,  while  the  mould  is  still  hot,  and  without 
smoothing. 

For  very  heavy  work  two  or  even  three  coats  may  be 
applied,  to  insure  the  best  results.  See  FACING. 

Corrosion. — The  act  of  eating  or  wearing  away  by 
slow  degrees,  as  by  the  action  of  acids  on  metal  and  other 
substances. 

Corrosive  Sublimate  is  the  chloride  of  mercury, 
and  is  formed  by  sublimation  from  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of 
the  protoxide  of  mercury  and  common  salt.  It  has  a  dis- 
agreeable, acrid  taste,  and  is  extremely  poisonous.  It  is  a 
white,  transparent  substance,  dissolves  in  16  parts  of  cold 
and  3  parts  of  boiling  water,  and  crystallizes  from  a  hot 
solution  in  long,  white  prisms. 

Corsicaii  Furnace. — A  smelting-furnace  similar  in 
nearly  all  respects  to  the  Catalan  Forge.  See  CATALAN 
FORGE. 

Corundum. — A  mineral  almost  equal  to  the  sapphire 
in  hardness,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  employed,  like  emery, 
for  polishing  metals  and  hard  stones.  It  is  pulverized, 
mixed  with  glue,  and  other  gum  compositions,  and  mould- 
ed into  all  forms  of  wheels  for  grinding  and  polishing 
every  variety  of  articles  produced  in  the  metal  industry. 

The  colors  of  corundum  are  various,  including  green, 
blue,  red,  inclining  to  gray,  of  a  shining  lustre,  translu- 
cent or  opaque;  specific  gravity,  4;  fusible  only  by  the  com- 
pound blowpipe.  The  composition  of  corundum  is  :  crys- 
talline alumina  85.5,  silex  7,  oxide  of  iron  14.  It  is  found 


Cottar.  122  Crane. 

in  the  East  Indies,  China,  the  United  States,  and  other 
places.  The  Chinese  varieties  are  called  adamantine-spar. 
See  EMERY;  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Cottar. — A  wedge-shaped,  malleable-iron  or  steel  key, 
used  for  drawing  flasks  together.  See  PIN,  and  COTTAR. 

Course. — A  row  or  layer  of  bricks  in  a  loam-mould  is 
termed  a  course  of  Irick. 

A  binding-course  is  one  row  of  bricks  set  end  in,  to  rest 
on  the  inner  and  outer  course. 

Crossing  the  course  means  to  break  the  joints  by  setting 
the  succeeding  courses  so  that  each  brick  shall  be  equally 
divided  upon  the  two  bricks  upon  which  it  is  laid.  Very 
strong  moulds  may  be  built  by  a  strict  observance  of  this 
rule,  often  rendering  it  unnecessary  to  make  binding- 
plates.  See  BINDING-PLATES  ;  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Covering-plate. — A  cast  plate  of  any  desired  form 
provided  with  prickers  for  carrying  the  rammed  sand  or 
swept  loam  on  its  surface.  Its  use  is  principally  in  loam- 
moulding,  as  a  final  covering  part,  after  cores  and  cope 
have  been  closed  together  in  their  respective  places.  Also 
called  top  -plate.  See  PLATE  ;  PRICKERS  ON  PLATES  ; 
LOAM-MOULDING. 

Crab. — A  portable  crane  or  winch,  with  gear-wheel  on 
the  barrel-shaft,  in  which  a  pinion  is  made  to  work  by 
means  of  cranks  at  each  end  of  the  pinion-shaft.  See 
CRAB;  CRANE. 

Cramp. — A  common  name  for  any  device  for  hold- 
ing two  or  more  articles  together — as  a  flask-clamp.  See 
CLAMP. 

Crane  is  a  hoist  having  the  capacity  of  moving  the 
load  in  a  horizontal  or  lateral  direction.  They  are  classed 


Crane.  123  Crane. 

as  rotary  and  rectilinear,  and  are  termed  hand  when  oper- 
ated by  manual  power ;  power,  when  driven  by  power  de- 
rived from  aline  of  shafting;  steam,  hydraulic,  or  pneu- 
matic, when  driven  by  steam,  water,  or  air,  under  pressure 
carried  to  the  cranes  by  pipes  from  a  fixed  source.  Swing- 
cranes  rotate,  but  have  no  trolley  movement.  Jib-cranes 
rotate,  and  have  a  trolley  traveller  on  the  jib.  Column- 
cranes  are  the  same  as  jibs,  but  rotate  round  a  fixed  col- 
umn that  supports  a  roof  or  floor  above.  Pillar-cranes 
rotate  on  a  pillar  secured  to  a  foundation.  Pillar-jib- 
cranes  are  similar  to  the  latter,  but  are  supplied  with  a  jib 
and  trolley.  Derrick-cranes  are  similar  to  jibs,  excepting 
that  guy-rods  hold  the  mast-head  instead  of  roof-beams. 
Bridge-cranes  have  a  fixed  bridge  across  an  opening,  with 
a  trolley  traversing  the  bridge.  Tram-cranes  consist  of 
a  truck  or  short  bridge,  which  travels  longitudinally  on 
overhead  rails,  but  having  no  trolley.  Travelling -cranes 
consist  of  a  bridge  moving  longitudinally  on  overhead 
tracks,  and  a  trolley  moving  transversely  on  the  bridge. 
Gantries  are  an  overhead  bridge,  carried  at  each  end  by  a 
trestle  travelling  on  longitudinal  tracks  on  the  ground,  and 
having  a  trolley  moving  transversely  on  the  bridge. 

The  overhead  tramrail  system  of  the  Yale  &  Towne 
Company  are  a  marvel  of  exactness  and  efficiency  where  it 
is  desired  to  move  loads  that  must  be  suspended  during  the 
operation.  These  are  constructed  for  both  indoor  and  out- 
side use.  The  track  is  composed  of  "  I "  beams  ;  special 
facilities  are  provided  for  curving  and  fitting,  switches 
and  turntables  being  supplied  when  necessary.  The  sys- 
tem thus  admits  of  extension  and  use  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  surface  railroad.  A  special  form  of  trolley  is 
arranged  to  run  freely  on  the  lower  flange  of  the  suspend- 
ed track,  and  is  provided  with  four  wheels,  two  on  each 
side,  carried  in  a  flexible  frame,  so  that  they  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  irregularities  of  the  track  and  pass  easily 


Crane-ladle.  124  Cross. 

around  curves.  These  trolley-cranes  are  constructed  to 
carry  over  ten-ton  loads.  The  above-named  company  have 
done  much  to  bring  crane  engineering  to  the  high  state  of 
efficiency  now  attained;  others  also  have  not  been  slow  to 
note  the  ever-increasing  demands  and  requirements  of  this 
advanced  age. 

The  Ridgeway  Balanced  Steam  Hydraulic  Crane  is  a 
model  of  simplicity  and  effectiveness ;  it  is  attached  to 
the  ordinary  steam  supply,  yet  it  is  a  true  hydraulic  crane, 
requiring  no  pumps  or  accumulators,  and  no  water  is  con- 
sumed. The  load  is  attached  directly  to  the  piston-rod, 
and  the  cylinder  supplied  with  steam,  water,  or  compressed 
air  by  a  hose. 

Walking  cranes  consist  of  a  pillar  or  jib  crane  mounted 
on  wheels  and  arranged  to  travel  upon  one  or  more  rails. 
Locomotive  cranes  are  similar  to  the  latter,  but  are  provided 
with  a  steam-engine  and  boiler  capable  of  propelling  and 
rotating  the  crane,  and  of  hoisting  and  lowering  the  load. 
See  IRON  CARRIER. 

Crane-ladle.— See  LADLE. 

Crank— sometimes  called  the  crane-handle — is  a  short 
arm  or  lever  turned  at  right  angles.  One  side  is  made 
round  and  smooth,  to  revolve  easily  in  the  hands  while 
rotating  the  hoisting  and  other  motions  of  the  crane;  the 
other  angle  terminates  with  a  swaged  hole  to  fit  the 
squared  end  of  the  shafts  which  carry  the  gearing.  See 
CRANE. 

Cross. — A  four-winged  iron  beam,  provided  with  a 
central  ring  for  suspending  in  the  crane-hook.  The  wings 
or  arm-ends  for  some  distance  are  evenly  notched  to  re- 
ceive beam-hooks  or  slings.  By  this  means  each  of  the 
four  slings  is  suspended  vertically,  and  clear  of  the  cope  or 


Crow  bar.  125  Crucible. 

core,  separate  lugs  being  provided  under  which  to  insert 
the  slings.     See  SLINGS;  BEAM-HOOKS;  BEAM. 

Crow-bar. — A  steel  or  iron  bar,  with  one  end  forged 
to  a  wedge.  Bars  of  this  kind  are  usually  employed  for 
chiselling,  digging,  and  lifting.  When  it  is  desired  to 
make  a  lever  of  such  bars,  for  pinching  at  the  backs  of 
wheels,  etc.,  the  end  should  be  formed  with  a  "heel,"  some 
slight  distance  back  from  the  point  which  acts  as  a  fixed 
fulcrum.  See  LEVER. 

Crown-plate. — The  plate  which  covers  in  the  core 
of  a  loam-mould,  as  a  pan,  kettle,  or  condenser  core,  or  any 
casting  where  the  metal  flows  over  the  top  when  the  mould 
is  filled. 

When  the  arch  of  a  kettle  core  is  turned  with  bricks 
entirely,  the  last  courses  of  bricks  are  termed  the  crowning- 
courses.  See  COURSE;  KETTLE. 

Crucible. — A  melting-pot  for  melting  brass,  cast  iron, 
steel,.etc.,  as  well  as  for  a  numerous  variety  of  chemical 
purposes.  The  common  crucible  is  made  of  clay,  and 
designed  to  withstand  a  strong  heat.  The  best  of  this  class 
are  the  "  Hessian  "  crucibles,  which  contain  a  proportion- 
ate quantity  of  sand,  mixed  with  clay  of  a  highly  refactory 
nature. 

The  ordinary  crucible  is  made  from  two  parts  Stour- 
bridge  clay  and  one  part  very  hard  coke — the  coke  to  be 
well  ground  and  the  two  ingredients  well  mixed  and  tem- 
pered together. 

Crucibles  for  melting  steel  must  be  made  from  the  best 
ingredients,  and  should  show  a  special  toughness  during 
the  high  temperature  required  for  steel-melting.  If  soft, 
they  are  apt  to  crush  under  the  pressure  exerted  by  the 
tongs  with  their  load  of  75  pounds  of  molten  steel.  The 


Crucible.  126  Crucible. 

materials  generally  employed  are  fire-clay,  burnt  and  raw, 
graphite,  and  ground  coke.  The  burnt  fire-clay  is  simply 
old  crucibles,  etc.,  perfectly  freed  from  slag  and  scoria  and 
ground  into  a  fine  powder. 

The  Mushet  crucibles  for  melting  steel  are  made  from 
Stourbridge  clay  5,  kaolin  5,  ground  crucible  1,  ground 
coke  1J.  These  crucibles  are  from  16  to  19  inches  high 
and  6  to  8  inches  diameter.  Many  steel  melters  make  their 
own  crucibles,  claiming  that  they  can  suit  the  crucible  to 
the  kinds  of  steel  they  are  making. 

Krupp  uses  his  crucibles  but  once  for  steel.  They  are 
then  ground,  and  mixed  with  plumbago  to  make  other 
crucibles  with,  the  latter  substance  being  the  only  ingredi- 
ent used. 

Black-lead  crucibles  were  first  made  by  Joseph  Dixon, 
founder  of  the  present  company  in  Jersey  City,  in  the 
year  1827.  They  became  at  once  the  standard  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  continue  so  to  be  to  the  present  day. 
They  are  made  of  this  material  from  £  pound  to  1000 
pounds  capacity,  and  are  for  melting  steel,  brass,  gold, 
copper,  silver,  German-silver, pure  nickel,  white  metal,  etc., 
and  also  for  file-tempering. 

Black-lead  crucibles  are  all  annealed  before  shipping,  but 
immediately  011  arrival  they  should  be  unpacked  and  stored 
in  a  warm,  dry  place  to  expel  any  moisture  that  may  have 
been  absorbed  in  the  transit.  To  provide  against  possible 
accident,  it  is  always  wise  to  re-anneal.  Before  placing  in 
the  hot  furnace,  the  temperature  of  a  crucible  should  be 
slowly  raised  to  at  least  212°  F.,  or  a  little  above  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water. 

All  clay  crucibles,  new  or  old,  should  be  gradually 
heated,  mouth  down,  up  to  a  red  heat  before  charging, 
and,  whether  in  the  preparatory  heating,  or  subsequent 
firing  for  melting,  the  crucible  should  always  be  well  cov- 
ered with  fuel;  otherwise  the  unequal  temperatures  induced 


Crucible  furnace.  127  Crucible-steel. 

by  carelessness  in  this  particular  will  result  in  a  broken 
pot.  If  clay  crucibles  could  be  kept  constantly  in  use 
without  allowing  them  to  become  cold  alternately,  there  is 
no  reason  why  they  should  not  last  from  15  to  20  meltings, 
especially  if  they  are  kept  clear  from  scoria,  and  repaired 
occasionally  with  a  paste  made  from  silica,  fire-clay,  and 
coke-dust.  Lifting-tongs  should  always  be  made  to  fit  the 
crucible  snugly,  at  as  many  places  as  convenient,  to  pre- 
vent splitting.  By  exerting  the  pressure  unequally  on 
the  sides  of  a  crucible  very  many  accidents  occur  ;  espe- 
cially is  this  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  large  ones. 

Crucibles  should  always  be  returned  to  the  furnace 
mouth  downwards,  after  the  heat  is  through,  so  that  the 
cooling  may  occur  gradually. 

The  best  graphite  crucibles  should  last  from  20  to  30 
meltings,  and,  whilst  they  may  be  less  liable  to  fracture 
from  sudden  changes  in  the  temperature,  it  is  well  to  ob- 
serve, in  some  measure  at  least,  the  directions  given  for 
clay  ones.  The  above  instructions  refer  to  brass- melting 
only.  See  STOURBRIDGE  CLAY;  KAOLIN;  PLUMBAGO; 
GRAPHITE;  FIKE-CLAY;  HESSIAN-CRUCIBLE;  CRUCIBLE- 
TONGS. 

Crucible-furnace.  —  See  BRASS-FURNACE;  CRUCI- 
BLE STEEL. 

Crucible  Steel. — Crucible  or  cast  steel  was  first  in- 
vented by  Huntsman,  of  Sheffield,  England,  in  1740.  He 
succeeded  in  effecting  the  complete  fusion  of  blister-steel 
in  crucibles — using  the  common  crucible-furnace  and  heat- 
ing with  coke  surrounding  the  pot.  This  was  finally 
poured  into  cast-iron  ingots  for  the  production  of  homo- 
geneous steel.  Whilst  the  above  represents  the  manufacture 
of  homogeneous  steel  by  melting  blister-steel  alone  in  cru- 
cibles, there  are  other  methods  extensively  practised  for 


Crucible-tongs.  128  Crusted-ladle. 

the  production  of  steel  in  crucibles  by  fusing  carbon,  black 
oxide  of  manganese,  or  spiegeleisen  in  small  proportions 
along  with  bar  iron  or  puddled  steel.  A  crucible  mixture 
for  tool  cast  steel  is  as  follows  : 

Swedish  bar  iron 50  pounds. 

Cast-steel  scraps 30       " 

Ferro-manganese J       " 

Charcoal i       " 

Salt i       « 

See  BLISTER  STEEL;  PUDDLE-STEEL;  STEEL. 
Crushed-joint.— See  FIN. 
Crucible-tongs. — See  LIFTING-TONGS. 

Crusted-ladle  is  caused  by  the  formation  of  scoria 
and  oxide  of  iron  on  the  surface  of  molten  metal  as  it  cools 
in  the  ladles.  This,  if  allowed  to  remain  unprotected  from 
the  cooling  action  of  the  atmosphere,  forms  an  impenetra- 
ble upper  crust,  through  which  in  time  it  becomes  impos- 
sible to  pour  the  metal,  resulting  sometimes  in  the  whole 
mass  having  to  be  remelted.  A  plentiful  use  of  broken 
charcoal  mixed  with  dust  of  the  same  acts  as  a  preventa- 
tive  of  this  by  shielding  the  surface  from  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  supplying  a  constant  heat  thereto  as  the 
charcoal  is  gradually  consumed.  When  it  is  desired  to 
keep  metal  in  a  ladle  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  let 
the  surface  be  kept  well  covered  with  the  charcoal,  espe- 
cially around  the  outer  edge,  where  it  is  necessary  to  watch 
particularly,  as  it  is  at  that  part  where  the  crust  first  com- 
mences to  form.  If  the  edge  is  broken  occasionally,  and  the 
supply  of  charcoal  kept  constant,  the  operation  of  preserv- 
ing the  metal  in  a  good  fluid  state  will  be  helped  consider- 
ably. 


Crystallization.  129  Crystallization. 

Crystallization. — The  particles  of  many  substances, 
when  loosened  either  by  melting,  solution,  or  otherwise,  so 
as  to  permit  freedom  of  motion,  tend  to  arrange  themselves 
in  regular  geometrical  forms,  which  are  termed  crystals. 
The  name  crystalloids  is  given  to  all  substances  which  have 
this  marked  tendency,  and  to  such  as  do  not  crystallize  the 
name  colloid,  or  glue-like,  is  given. 

Crystalloids  are  represented  by  such  substances  as  water, 
metals,  acids,  sugar,  etc.;  while  albumen,  jellies,  etc.,  are 
examples  of  colloids.  Crystalloids  incline  to  take  compact, 
angular  forms,  while  the  colloids  assume  rounded  outlines, 
and  are  of  a  soft,  gelatinous,  and  yielding  nature. 

The  former  bodies  predominate  in  the  inorganic  world, 
the  latter  in  the  organic.  It  is  found  that  almost  all 
bodies  when  cooled  take  the  crystalline  form,  though  this 
may  not  be  perceptible  at  first.  The  spaces  left  between 
the  crystals  which  form  are  completely  filled  up  by  the 
portions  which  solidify  afterwards,  so  that  fracture  reveals 
only  a  general  crystalline  structure,  just  as  we  find  it  in 
cast  iron,  zinc,  etc.,  when  broken.  Common  glass,  wrought 
iron,  flint,  glue,  etc.,  are  amorphous  bodies,  without  any 
form  of  crystalline  structure  ;  these  all  fracture  in  any 
form  or  direction,  are  not  so  hard,  and  are  more  soluble 
than  are  substances  of  a  crystalline  nature. 

Crystalline  carbon  is  represented  in  the  diamond,  while 
amorphous  carbon  finds  its  examples  in  common  lamp- 
black and  charcoal.  A  crystal  is  a  piece  of  matter  that  by 
the  action  of  molecular  forces  has  assumed  a  definite  geo- 
metrical form  of  some  kind,  with  plain  faces. 

Some  metals  as  soon  as  cast  are  tenacious  and  uncrystal- 
line,  but  become  brittle,  with  traces  of  crystallization,  when 
heated  and  cooled  repeatedly.  Small  as  the  amount  of 
freedom  given  to  the  particles  by  heating  and  cooling,  yet 
it  seems  sufficient  to  determine  a  tendency  towards  the  crys- 
talline condition.  By  continuous  hammering,  metals  are 


Cube.  130  Cupola. 

changed  from  a  ductile  to  a  brittle,  crystalline  state,  as  is 
proved  by  the  workers  in  copper,  who  must  frequently 
anneal  the  metal  as  they  hammer  it  into  shape;  otherwise  it 
would  become  so  brittle  that  it  would  fly  into  fragments. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  crystallization  does  take  place, 
even  in  solids,  if  the  particles  are  left  free,  bells  after  a 
time  alter  in  tone;  cannons,  from  constant  firing,  lose  their 
strength;  and  thus,  by  the  constant  jar  and  vibrations,  as 
well  as  hard  blows,  chains,  slings,  etc.,  made  from  wrought 
iron  gradually  change  from  the  tough  and  fibrous  into  the 
crystalline,  which  weakens  them  and  increases  their  liabil- 
ity to  fracture.  See  AMORPHOUS  ;  STEEL. 

Cube.  —  A  regular  solid  body  with  six  equal  square 
sides  or  faces,  each  of  which  is  parallel  to  the  one  oppo- 
site to  it.  It  is  a  form  of  frequent  occurrence  in  nature, 
especially  among  crystals.  See  CRYSTALLIZATION,  AMOR- 
PHOUS. 

Cubic   Foot   of   Metals,    Weight    of.  — See 

WEIGHT  OF  METALS. 

Cubic    Inch    of  Metals,    Weight    of.  — See 

WEIGHT  or  METALS. 

Cupola. — A  cupola  is  simply  a  foundry  melting-fur- 
nace. Those  now  in  common  use  are  usually  composed  of 
an  outer  wrought-iron  shell,  inside  of  which  is  built  a  lin- 
ing of  fire-bricks  carefully  set  in  their  fire-clay,  as  close  to- 
gether as  possible,  and  in  close  proximity  to  the  shell. 

Cupolas  may  be  from  two  to  eight  feet  in  diameter  up 
to  the  charging-door,  according  to  requirements,  beyond 
which  point  they  can  assume  a  conical  shape  for  the  chim- 
ney. Formerly  all  cupolas  rested  on  a  solid  foundation  of 
brick  or  stone-work ;  but  they  are  now,  as  a  rule,  supported 


Cupola.  131  Cupola. 

on  four  iron  columns,  by  which  means  the  residue  may  be 
dropped  clean  out  of  the  inside  when  through  melting, 
instead  of  raking  it  out,  as  must  be  the  case  when  a  solid 
bottom  is  used.  This  is  accomplished  by  providing  hinged 
iron  doors  under  the  bottom,  which,  when  the  heat  is  over, 
may  be  dropped  and  thus  allow  the  slug  and  cinders  to  fall 
through  into  the  pit  below. 

For  the  former,  a  large  breast-hole  must  be  provided  at 
the  bottom,  either  front  or  back  of  the  cupola,  through 
which  to  rake  out  the  cinder,  etc. ;  but  for  the  improved 
ones  a  hole  about  seven  inches  square  is  all  that  is  re- 
quired, to  which  is  attached  the  spout  for  leading  the 
molten  iron  into  the  ladles.  The  spout  and  tap-hole  are 
invariably  made  good  with  sand  or  fire-clay  mixture  for 
each  heat. 

In  some  instances,  for  very  small  cupolas,  the  blast  en- 
ters therein  through  one  or  two  pipes;  but  for  larger  ones 
a  continuous  belt  or  wind-box  encircles  the  cupola,  out  of 
which  as  many  tuyeres  as  may  be  considered  necessary  are 
served,  the  wind-box  being  simply  a  continuation  of  the 
main  blast-pipe  leading  from  the  blower  or  fan,  which,  if 
up  to  the  required  capacity  and  skilfully  managed,  will  be 
regulated  to  supply  a  blast  of  such  volume  and  pressure  as 
will  ensure  perfect  combustion  of  the  fuel  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  produce  the  intensity  of  heat  required  for  melt- 
ing the  metal  which  has  been  charged. 

See,  under  the  following  list,  for  details  of  cupola  con- 
struction and  management : 

Bed-fuel.  Bott-stick. 

Blast.  Breast. 

Blast-gate.  Bugs. 

Blast-gauge.  Burnt-iron. 

Blast-pipe.  Carbon. 

Blast-pressure.  Carbonic  Acid. 

Blowers.  Carbonic  Oxide. 

Bott-clay.  Carrying-bar. 


Cupro-manganese. 


132 


Curb. 


Cast  Iron. 

Charge. 

Charging-door. 

Charging-hole. 

Charging  the  common  cupola. 

Coal. 

Coke. 

Coke-fork. 

Combustion. 

Crusted-ladle. 

Cupola. 

Daubing. 

Drop-bottom. 

Eye-piece. 

Fan. 

Fire-brick. 

Fire-clay. 

Flame. 

Flux. 

Fuel. 

Grades  of  Pig-iron. 

Greiuers  cupola. 

Grouting. 

Hard  Iron. 

Height  of  cupola. 


Hood. 

Plot-blast. 

Ladles. 

Lighting  the  cupola. 

Lining  ladles. 

Lining  the  cupola. 

Oxygen. 

Pig-iron. 

Piston-blower. 

Pressu  re-bl  ower. 

Pressure-gauge. 

Ratio  of  fuel  to  iron. 

Repairing  the  cupola. 

Sand-bed. 

Scaffolding. 

Scrap. 

Shank. 

Silicon. 

Slag. 

Softeners. 

Soft-iron. 

Spout. 

Tapping-bar. 

Tuyeres. 

Wind-box. 


Cupro-manganese . — See  MANGANESE-COPPER. 

Curb. — An  iron  casing,  in  which  to  ram  moulds  that  are 
made  in  loam.  They  may  be  whole  or  in  sections,  accord- 
ing to  size  and  convenience,  and  are  of  great  service  when 
the  moulds  are  shallow  and  it  is  not  desirable  to  sink  a  pit. 
They  may  be  employed  in  the  pit  also,  in  order  to  limit  the 
amount  of  sand  to  be  rammed  round  a  mould  to  the  small- 
est amount  possible  consistent  with  safety.  By  this  means 
much  time  and  labor  is  saved.  Those  in  common  use  are 
simply  boiler  plate,  riveted  together  if  whole,  and  bolted  if 
in  sections.  Improved  sections  are  made  that  lock  together 
with  steel-pins,  so  that  it  becomes  the  simplest  matter  pos- 


Current.  133  Cutter. 

sible  to  alter  the  diameter  to  an  unlimited  extent.  The 
most  convenient  depth  for  curbs  is  from  15  to  18  inches. 
See  PIT;  LOAM-MOULDING;  BAMMING. 

Current.  —  Current  is  spoken  of  in  the  foundry  in  its 

relation  to  the  flow  of  metal  as  it  leaves  the  furnace,  or  as 
it  flows  from  the  ladle  into  the  mould.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  forced  stream  of  molten  metal  as  it  issues  from  the 
gates  and  flows  over  the  mould's  surface.  The  current  of 
metal,  like  all  other  fluids,  is  strongest  at  its  source  —  for 
which  reason  there  is  always  the  greatest  danger  of  abrasion 
nearest  to  the  gates  or  runners  ;  hence  special  attention 
should  be  expended  to  make  such  parts  of  a  mould  more 
rigid  and  refractory  than  is  necessary  elsewhere.  See  GATES; 
CUTTING;  SCABBING. 


Curved-pipes.  —  See  BEND-PIPE. 

Cut-off.  —  A  cut-off  in  founding  is  somewhat  different 
to  that  in  engineering,  and  means  to  arrange  a  riser  in  such 
a  manner  as  will  prevent  the  full  head  of  pressure  from  being 
exerted  on  the  mould.  To  do  this  effectually  and  with 
absolute  certainty,  the  riser  should  instantly  indicate  when 
the  mould  is  full,  at  which  point  the  head-pressure  in  the 
running  basin  is  at  once  checked  by  ceasing  to  pour.  What 
remains  in  the  basin  flows  through  the  casting,  and  out 
at  the  riser,  which,  being  lower,  tends  to  "  cut  off  "  just  as 
much  pressure  as  the  difference  in  depth  measures.  See 
BISER;  WEIGHTING-COPES;  PRESSURE  OF  MOLTEN  METAL. 

Cutter.  —  A  sharp,  curved  tool  for  carving  gates  in  the 
sand.  Some  are  made  exclusively  for  this  purpose  in  steel 
or  brass;  others  are  merely  a  sharp-edged  piece  of  tin  or 
copper-plate  that  may  be  bent  to  any  desirable  shape.  At 
best,  such  tools  as  "gate  cutters"  can  only  be  called  a 


Cutting.  134  Dam. 

make-shift;  the  cleaner  and  more  artistic  method  of  form- 
ing gates  is  to  ram  them  along  with  the  pattern.  See 
GATES. 

Cutting.— The  result  of  violent  attrition  of  molten 
metal  on  unprotected  and  unsuitably  prepared  mould  sur- 
faces. When,  because  of  dampness,  steam  forms  more 
rapidly  than  it  can  escape  through  the  vents,  it  forces  its 
way  through  the  surface  and  lifts  a  portion  of  the  mould's 
skin  with  it,  forming  a  scab  at  that  place.  This  by  some  is 
improperly  termed  a  "cut  "  place.  Cutting  means  a  forced 
displacement  of  the  surface  caused  by  undue  abrasion,  or 
impact.  The  former  happens  when  a  large  quantity  of 
metal  is  urged  over  a  surface  not  sufficiently  unyielding  in 
its  nature  to  resist  it  successfully;  the  latter  when  such  sur- 
faces are  subjected  to  a  fall  of  metal  high  enough  to  break 
them.  See  SCABBED  CASTINGS;  CURRENT;  GATES;  BUN- 
KERS. 

Cylinder-blower. — See  BLOWER. 


D. 

Dalbbers. — A  foundry  name  for  the  projections  or 
prickers  cast  on  covering  plates  for  loam -work.  See 
PRICKERS. 

Dam. — A  reservoir  or  tank  used  for  collecting  or 
gathering  a  large  quantity  of  metal  to  cast  heavy  castings. 
Whilst  constructed  in  various  wa}'s,  the  main  features  con- 
sist in  making  it  strong  to  maintain  the  metal,  and  of  such 
materials  as  will  conduce  to  its  preservation  in  a  good  con- 
dition for  casting  with.  A  thoroughly  well-dried  loam 
and  brick  construction  within  suitable  curbs  is  the  best, 
taking  care  to  have  it  as  hot  as  possible  when  the  metal 


Damascus  Steel.  135  Dampness. 

• 

enters,  and  keeping  from  4  to  5  inches  of  dry  charcoal  on 
the  surface.  The  mode  of  emptying  the  dam  is  usually  by 
a  shutter,  which  hermetically  closes  the  outlet  whilst  it  is 
being  filled,  and  is  raised  by  means  of  a  controlling  lever, 
so  that  the  metal  may  be  delivered  at  any  desired  speed. 
See  GATHERING  METAL;  CUBES;  SHUTTER. 

Damascus  Steel, — A  steel  originally  made  in  Da- 
mascus. It  is  composed  of  layers  of  very  pure  iron  and 
steel,  worked  with  great  care  by  heating  and  extraordinary 
forging,  such  as  twisting,  doubling,  etc.  See  STEEL. 

Damper. — A  very  useful  and  profitable  device  in  a 
foundry  oven,  when  intelligently  managed.  A  right 
knowledge  of  its  use  saves  both  time  and  money  to  the 
founder.  Frequently  none  are  employed;  and  not  un- 
frequently,  at  places  where  dampers  were  originally  in- 
tended, they  have  been  allowed  to  lapse  into  desuetude 
through  sheer  and  unwarrantable  neglect.  Let  a  good- 
sized  chimney,  controlled  by  a  full  damper,  be  placed  if 
possible  central  with  the  oven  at  the  roof,  and  one  on 
each  side,  diagonally,  at  the  bottom,  with  these.  Careful 
attention  will  discover  in  what  manner  to  best  rid  the  oven 
of  steam,  at  the  same  time  losing  no  heat.  By  constant 
application  to  find  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  above 
problem,  ovens  with  absolutely  no  record  may  easily  have 
their  value  increased  a  hundredfold.  See  OVENS. 

Dampness. — The  requisite  degree  of  dampness  in 
moulding-sand  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the 
moulder.  If  too  moist,  steam  is  generated  by  the  hot 
metal  quicker  than  the  vents  will  allow  it  to  escape,  and 
scabs  will  inevitably  ensue.  If  not  damp  enough,  it  lacks 
consistency  and  fails  to  preserve  its  shape  in  the  mould, 
being  easily  disturbed  during  the  ordinary  operations  of 


Daubing.  136  Daubing 

moulding,  and  yielding  too  readily  to  the  abrading  action 
of  the  molten  metal.    See  VENTING;  SCABBED  CASTINGS. 

Daubing. — The  clay  mixture  usually  made  by  the 
cupola-man  for  repairing  bad  spots  in  the  cupola  and  for 
lining  the  inside  of  ladles.  Too  frequently  these  mixtures 
are  made  by  those  who  possess  no  knowledge  whatever  of  the 
requirements  in  the  case;  the  result  being  that  the  metal 
boils  when  it  enters  the  ladles,  and  cupolas  are  prematurely 
worked  out  and  always  amiss  for  the  want  of  a  rightly 
mixed  daubing  for  keeping  them  in  good  working  shape. 

A  good  daubing  for  ladles  is  made  from  equal  quantities 
of  good  moulding  and  fire  sands,  mixed  well  together  in  a 
dry  state,  to  be  afterwards  brought  to  the  right  consistency 
for  use  by  the  addition  of  thick  clay-wash  made  from  com- 
mon clay. 

Daubing  for  repairing  the  cupola  should  be  of  a  much 
stronger  nature,  and,  what  is  of  equal  importance,  should 
be  properly  applied  and  not  thrown  on  the  walls  carelessly 
in  thick  lumps  that  only  fall  away  into  the  stock  as  soon 
as  the  extreme  heat  is  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  leaving  the 
part  it  has  vacated  entirely  unprotected  and  very  materially 
impeding  the  regular  action  of  the  cupola. 

A  good  daubing  for  cupolas  is  :  Fire-clay  (not  common 
clay),  50  parts;  fire-sand,  of  a  good  siliceous  kind,  25 
parts;  and  ground  fire-bricks,  25  parts — to  be  mixed  well 
together  when  dry,  and  brought  to  the  right  consistency 
with  water.  This  should  be  rubbed  on  evenly,  as  thin  as 
possible ;  and  should  the  patching  require  to  be  more  than 
one  inch  thick  at  any  part,  it  is  much  better  to  cut  some 
of  the  backing  away  and  insert  new  bricks. 

Some  have  an  idea  that  salt  mixed  with  the  sand  and 
fire-clay  for  this  purpose  acts  beneficially.  I  think  this 
bad  practice  may  have  originated  in  a  misconception  of  its 
right  use  in  the  stone  and  earthenware  manufactories, 


Davy's  lamp.  137  Decimals. 

where  salt  is  extensively  employed  as  a  glazing  agent,  its 
volatility  at  furnace  heat  combining  with  other  qualities  to 
fit  it  for  this  use.  No  doubt  it  has  been  thought  by  those 
who  were  only  partially  instructed  in  these  matters  that  a 
permanent  glaze,  similar  to  that  produced  on  the  earthen- 
ware, might  be  imparted  to  the  walls  of  the  cupola  by  the 
use  of  salt;  but  if  they  will  remember  that  salt  fuses  at  a 
red  heat,  they  will  at  once  realize  that  any  salt  used  for 
cupola  purposes  must  constitute  a  slag-forming  agent,  at 
every  heat,  until  every  vestige  of  salt  has  been  melted  out. 
See  REPAIRING  THE  CUPOLA;  CUPOLA;  SEA-WATER. 

Davy's-lamp.— See  SAFETY-LAMP. 

Dead-metal. — Metal  that  has  lost  heat  to  such  ex- 
tent as  to  have  become  too  sluggish  to  flow  smoothly  and 
give  a  sharp  impression  of  the  mould.  See  FAINT-RUN. 

Decarbonize. — To  deprive  any  substance  of  its  car- 
bon. This  word  is  synonymous  with  decarburize,  and 
means  to  take  the  carbon  from — as  decarbonizing  steel  or 
iron.  See  DECARBONIZING  PROCESSES. 

Decarbonizing  Processes. — The  process  of  de- 
carbonizing takes  place  in  puddling  and  boiling  furnaces 
when  cast  iron  is,  by  heating,  deprived  of  its  carbon,  and 
thus  made  malleable.  But  there  are  many  special  decar- 
bonizing and  desulphurizing  processes  by  which  these  su- 
perfluous elements  are  eliminated  from  cast  iron.  See 
MALLEABLE  IRON;  PUDDLING. 

Decimals  Changed  to  Parts  of  a  Pound 
Avoirdupois. — The  following  table  converts  each  deci- 
mal of  a  pound,  of  16  ounces,  into  ounces  and  drachms, 
and  is  very  serviceable  when  it  is  desired  to  change  the 
formulas  that  are  stated  in  decimal  proportion  : 


Decimals. 


138 


Decimals. 


Decimal. 

Oz.  Dr. 

Decimal.  Oz.  Dr. 

Decimal. 

Oz  Dr. 

Decimal. 

Oz  Dr. 

.003 

1 

.128 

2  1 

.253 

4  1 

.378 

6  1 

.007 

2 

.132 

2  2 

.257 

4  2 

.382 

6  2 

.011 

3 

.136 

2  3 

.261 

4  3 

.386 

6  3 

.015 

4 

.140 

2  4 

.265 

4  4 

.390 

6  4 

.019 

5 

.144 

2  5 

.269 

4  5 

-.394 

6  5 

.023 

6 

.148 

2  6 

.273 

4  6 

.398 

6  6 

.027 

7 

.152 

2  7 

.277 

4  7 

.402 

6  7 

.031 

8 

.156 

2  8 

.281 

4  8 

.406 

6  8 

.035 

9 

.160 

2  9 

.285 

4  9 

.410 

6  9 

.039 

10 

.164 

2  10 

.289 

4  10 

.414 

6  10 

.043 

11 

.168 

2  11 

.293 

4  11 

.418 

6  11 

.046 

12 

.171 

2  12 

.297 

4  12 

.421 

6  12 

.050 

13 

.175 

2  13 

.300 

4  13 

.425 

6  13 

.0,54 

14 

.179 

2  14 

.304 

4  14 

.429 

6  14 

.058 

15 

.183 

2  15 

.308 

4  15 

.433 

6  15 

.062 

1   0 

.187 

3  0 

.312 

5  0 

.437 

7  0 

.066 

1   1 

.191 

3  1 

.316 

5  1 

.441 

7  1 

.070 

1   2 

.195 

3  2 

.320 

5  2 

.445 

7  2 

.074 

1   3 

.199 

3  3 

.324 

5  3 

.449 

7  3 

.078 

1  4 

.203 

3  4 

.328 

5  4 

.453 

7  4 

.082 

1   5 

.207 

3  5 

.832 

5  5 

.457 

7  5 

.085 

1   6 

.210 

3  6 

.335 

5  6 

.460 

7  6 

.089 

1   7 

.214 

3  7 

.339 

5  7 

.464 

7  7 

.093 

1   8 

.218 

3  8 

.343 

5  8 

.468 

7  8 

.097 

1   9 

.222 

3  9 

.347 

5  9 

.472 

7  9 

.101 

1  10 

.226 

3  10 

.351 

5  10 

.476 

7  10 

.105 

1  11 

.230 

3  11 

.355 

5  11 

.480 

7  11 

.109 

1  12 

.234 

3  12 

.359 

5  12 

.484 

7  12 

.113 

1  13 

.238 

3  13 

.363 

5  13 

.488 

7  13 

.117 

1  14 

.242 

3  14 

.367 

5  14 

.492 

7  14 

.121 

1  15 

.246 

3  15 

.371 

5  15 

.496 

7  15 

.125 

2  0 

.250 

4  0 

.375 

6  0 

.500 

8  0 

Decimals  of  1,  or  Unity,  Changed  to 
Fractions. — The  following  table  affords  a  ready  refer- 
ence for  obtaining  the  vulgar  equivalents  of  the  decimal 
fractions  of  1,  or  unity  : 


•ft  =  .015625 
^  =  .03125 
-^  =  .0625 
£  =  .125 
A  =  -1-875 
1  =.25 


A  =  -3125 
|  =  .375 
A-  =  .4375 

t  =-5 

A  =  .5625 

4  =  .625 


U=    .6875 
f  =    .75 
H  =    .8125 
|  =    .875 
J|=    -9375 
1  =  1.0000 


Deliver.  139  Deoxidation. 

Deliver. — This  term  applies  to  the  withdrawal  of  a 
pattern  from  the  sand.  It  is  said  to  deliver  ill  or  well 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  mould  it  has  been  the 
means  of  forming.  See  PATTEEN;  DEAFT. 

Delta-metal. — A  gun-metal  of  great  density  and 
strength.  Its  composition  is  :  copper  56,  tin  1,  zinc  41, 
iron  2.  The  wrought  iron  must  be  alloyed  with  the  zinc 
in  due  proportion,  and  introduced  as  an  iron-zinc  alloy, 
in  known  proportions,  in  the  customary  manner.  This 
alloy  is  similar  to  sterro-metal.  An  addition  of  lead  (0.40 
per  cent)  makes  the  composition  more  ductile  and  soft,  and 
it  is  then  called  Tobin-bronze.  Delta-metal  can  be  forged 
or  rolled  at  a  dull-red  heat,  and  may  be  drawn  or  ham- 
mered to  a  certain  limit  when  cold.  Castings  made  from 
this  alloy  are  remarkable  for  their  soundness,  and  have 
a  tensile  strength  of  from  40,000  to  50,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  See  BEOKZE. 

Density  is  the  proportionate  quantity  of  matter  in 
bodies  of  a  given  magnitude;  thus,  if  a  body  contain  more 
matter  than  another,  both  being  of  the  same  bulk,  the  for- 
mer is  said  to  be  more  dense  than  the  other.  The  quan- 
tity of  matter  is  measured  by  the  weight,  and  thus  density 
and  specific  gravity  come  to  be  proportional  to  one  another. 
Platina,  which  is  about  21  times  the  weight  of  water,  long 
passed  for  the  densest  body,  but  iridium  is  even  more 
dense.  Rare  is  opposed  to  dense;  the  rarest  body  known 
is  hydrogen,  which  is  about  14£  times  rarer  than  atmos- 
pheric air.  Density  of  bodies  is  increased  by  cold  and 
diminished  by  heat.  See  SPECIFIC  GEAVITY. 

Deoxidation. — A  term  applied  to  the  process  of 
withdrawing  the  oxygen  from  a  compound. 


Deoxidized  Bronze.  140  Deoxidized  Bronze. 

Deoxidized  Bronze. — The  claims  made  by  the 
Deoxidized  Metal  Company,  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  for  their 
special  manufacture  of  bronze  is  as  follows  : 

Deoxidized  bronze  is  deoxidized  copper  alloyed  with  tin 
in  any  proportions  desired.  Thus  making  deoxidized 
bronze  of  any  mixture  stronger,  tougher,  denser,  harder, 
and  yet  of  greater  elastic  limit  than  the  same  mixtures  of 
metal  not  deoxidized.  See  copy  of  test  made  by  the  U.  S. 
Navy  Department  at  Watertown  Arsenal,  Aug.  24,  1889, 
between  bronze  of  the  proportions  of — 

Copper 88 

Tin 10 

Zinc    2 

made  by  deoxidized  Metal  Company  of  above  proportions, 
and  deoxidized  ;  and  bronzes  of  same  proportions  made  at 
the  Navy  Yards  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Norfolk,  Va.,  and 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  but  not  deoxidized.  This  report  shows 
that  taking  the  average  of  the  samples  from  the  different 
Navy  Yards,  the  deoxidized  samples  show  a  superiority  of — 

65T87  per  cent  in  tensile  strength. 

58       "      "      "  elastic  limit. 

18       "      "      "  transverse  strength. 

44       "      "      "  hardness. 

60       "       "      "  compression. 

23       "      "     "  elastic  limit,  under  compression. 

As  our  price  in  ingot  metal  is  less  than  15  per  cent 
greater  than  the  same  would  be  not  deoxidized,  it  will  be 
perceived  that  purchasers  benefit  themselves  about  50  per 
cent  in  using  deoxidized  bronze,  instead  of  making  their 
own  alloys — besides  making  surer  casting.  It  is  also  proper 
to  say,  that  deoxidized  bronze  of  above  mixtures  with  the 
zinc  omitted  is  15  per  cent  greater  in  tensile  strength  than 
with  it,  as  shown  by  tests  at  Watertown  Arsenal,  made 
September  22,  1888. 


Deoxidized  Copper.  141  Deoxidized  Copper. 

Deoxidized  copper  and  bronze  is  superior  to  all  copper 
and  bronze  not  deoxidized.  See  DEOXIDIZED  COPPER. 

Deoxidized  Copper. — The  following  is  a  statement 
by  the  Bridgeport  Deoxidized  Metal  Company  in  regard  to 
their  processes  with  copper  : 

Deoxidized  copper  is  Calumet  and  Hecla  Lake  copper, 
the  purest  and  best  copper  in  the  world,  from  which  the 
suboxide  of  the  copper  and  the  oxygen  has  been  removed 
by  our  processes — thereby  rendering  the  copper  denser, 
stronger,  tougher,  and  purer;  enabling  us  to  make  solid 
castings  of  deoxidized  copper  20  per  cent  denser,  35  per 
cent  stronger,  50  per  cent  tougher,  and  5  per  cent  better 
conductivity  than  the  same  copper  not  deoxidized,  as  per 
certificates  and  testimonies  following  : 

Comparative  analyses  made  at  School  of  Mines,  New 
York,  of  Calumet  and  Hecla  Lake  copper,  with  the  same 
copper  deoxidized  : 

CALUMET  AND   HECLA  LAKE   COPPER. 
Constituents.  No.  1.  2.  3. 

Metallic  copper 99.854        99. 63          98.10 

Suboxide  of  copper 0.293          0.324          1.95 

Iron 0.015  0.011 

Tin 0.021  

Silver 0.012          0.024          0.03 

Phosphorus trace  ....          trace 

Arsenic,  nickel,  zinc,  lead,  antimony,  sulphur — none. 

DEOXIDIZED   LAKE   COPPER. 
Constituents. 

Metallic  copper 99.80 

Suboxide  of  copper 0.07 

Iron 0.01 

Tin 0.01 

Silver  . ,  0.02 


Deoxidized  Copper.  142  Deoxidized  Copper. 

Arsenic,  lead,  phosphorus,  antimony,  sulphur, 
aluminum,  zinc,  nickel,  cobalt — none. 

MEAN  OF  THE  ANALYSES  OF  LAKE   COPPER. 

Metallic  copper 99.19 

Suboxide 85 

DEOXIDIZED   COPPER. 

Metallic  copper 99.89 

Suboxide 07 

Taking  the  mean  of  the  results  of  tests  by  tension,  the 
deoxidized  bronze  shows  a  superiority  of  65.8  per  cent  in 
tensile  strength  and  58  per  cent  in  elastic  limit  over  the 
Navy  Yard  bronzes,  with  53  per  cent  less  elongation  and 
36  per  cent  less  reduction  of  area. 

All  the  Navy  Yard  bronzes  when  fractured  showed  large 
crystals  of  both  copper  and  tin.  The  specimens  from  the 
Deoxidized  Metal  Company,  on  the  contrary,  show  in  fract- 
ure a  very  fine,  even  grain  of  lavender  color,  and  were 
fine  specimens  of  castings. 

Short  sections  of  tensile  specimens  have  been  forwarded 
by  express  to  the  bureau,  which  will  show  the  appearance 
of  the  fractures  in  both  the  deoxidized  and  Navy  Yard 
bronzes. 

TESTS  BY   COMPRESSION. 

The  deoxidized  specimens  showed  a  superiority  over  the 
other  bronzes  of  60  per  cent  in  strength  and  23  per  cent 
in  elastic  limit. 

All  specimens  broke  by  triple  flexure. 

Deoxidized  bronze  as  furnished  for  the  above  tests  is 
remarkably  close  grained  and  homogeneous.  It  turns  well 
in  the  lathe  and  is  susceptible  of  high  polish.  It  does  not 
tarnish  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  as  readily  as  the 
other  bronzes  tested,  all  of  which  have  been  exposed  to  like 
conditions  since  July  14th  of  this  year,  the  deoxidized 


Dephosphorizing  Process.  143  Diamond. 

specimens  being   still   intact,  while   the   others  are   per- 
ceptibly tarnished.     See  COPPEB. 

Dephosphorizing  Process.— See  BASIC  PROCESS. 

Deposit.  —  A  body,  or  substance  precipitated,  or 
thrown  down  from  a  solution  by  decomposition.  See  PRE- 
CIPITATION. 

Derrick.— See  CRANES. 

Diagonal. — A  straight  line  joining  two  angles,  not 
adjacent,  of  a  rectilinear  figure. 

Diameter. — A  line,  which  passing  through  the  centre 
of  a  circle  or  other  curvilinear  figure,  divides  it  or  its 
ordinates  in  two  equal  parts.  Also,  the  length  of  a  straight 
line  through  the  centre  of  an  object,  from  side  to  side,  as 
the  diameter  of  a  cylinder,  fly-wheel,  etc. 

Diamond. — The  purest  form  of  carbon  known.  It 
is  a  crystal  of  the  greatest  purity  and  hardness  known. 
Several  localities  in  India,  the  island  of  Borneo,  and 
Brazil  furnish  this  beautiful  substance.  Diamonds  possess 
a  very  high  refractive  and  dispersive  power,  by  which  they 
flash  the  most  varied  and  vivid  colors  of  light.  The  dia- 
mond is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  resists  the 
action  of  all  known  chemical  substances.  It  is  infusible 
and  unalterable  even  by  a  very  intense  heat  if  air  be  ex- 
cluded ;  but  when  burned  in  oxygen  gas,  the  combination 
forms  carbonic  acid  gas,  hence  its  composition  is  pure  car- 
bon. Heated  to  whiteness  in  a  vessel  of  oxygen  it  readily 
burns,  yielding  carbonic-acid  gas;  hence  its  composition  is 
pure  carbon  (specific  gravity,  3.5).  A  diamond  is  of  the 
first  water  when  perfectly  colorless. 


Diamond.  144  Dipping. 

Artificial  diamonds  are  made  from  a  paste  composed  of 
pure  silica  100,  red  oxide  of  lead  150,  calcined  potash  29, 
calcined  borax  11,  arsenious  acid  1.  This  composition 
fuses  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  if  the  alkali  is  expelled  by 
the  continued  fusion  it  acquires  great  brilliancy.  SeePRE- 
cious  STONES;  CARBON. 

Diamond   and    Brilliant    Imitations,  —  To 

make  metal  imitations  of  these  precious  stones,  procure  a 
glass  rod  and  grind  the  end  to  the  form  of  whatever  it  is 
intended  to  imitate.  Dip  the  ground  end  of  the  rod  into 
reflector  metal,  which  has  been  previously  freed  from  scum ; 
the  metal  will  adhere  to  the  ground  surface  and  form  a 
hollow  cap  of  extreme  brilliancy  which  answers  to  the 
design  ground  on  the  end  of  the  rod.  See  REFLECTOR 
METAL. 

Dies,  To  harden. — In  order  to  produce  an  equal 
degree  of  hardness  throughout  the  entire  surface  of  a  die, 
it  has  been  found  best  to  let  fall  a  copious  stream  of  water 
from  a  reservoir  placed  above,  directly  upon  the  centre  of 
the  die.  This  is  a  superior  method  to  direct  immersion, 
as  the  rapid  formation  of  steam  at  the  sides  of  the  die, 
consequent  on  the  later  mode,  prevents  free  access  of  the 
water  for  removing  the  heat  with  the  expedition  requisite 
for  obtaining  a  hard  surface  at  the  centre.  See  TEMPER- 
ING; STAMPING. 

Dipping. — A  process  by  which  a  bright  surface  is  im- 
parted to  the  alloy  or  metal  after  it  has  undergone  the 
process  of  pickling,  scouring,  and  washing.  Dipping  con- 
sists of  immersing  the  article  in  pure  nitrous  acid  for  a 
moment,  but  no  iron  or  wood  implements  are  to  be  used. 
Brass  tongs  are  best  for  this  purpose,  and  the  vessels  should 
be  earthenware. 


Distillation.  145  Double-hook. 

If  the  work  appears  coarse  and  spotted  after  dipping,  the 
dip  must  be  repaired  by  adding  sulphuric  acid;  should  it 
be  too  smooth  after  it  has  been  dipped,  add  muriatic  acid 
and  nitric  till  it  shows  the  right  appearance.  Dips  should 
be  kept  stirred,  and  not  allowed  to  settle  whilst  using. 
See  STAINING  METALS;  PICKLING;  ORMOLU  DIPPING 
ACID;  QUICK  DIPPING-ACID;  LACQUERING. 

Distillation. — Is  vaporizing  a  liquid  by  heat  in  one 
vessel,  and  condensing  it  by  cold  in  another;  the  object 
being  to  separate  a  liquid  from  non-volatile  substances  dis- 
solved in  it,  as  in  distilling  water  to  purify  it  from  foreign 
matter,  or  to  disunite  two  liquids  which  evaporate  at  differ- 
ent temperatures,  as  water  and  alcohol. 

Dog". — A  double-ended  hold-fast,  made  by  pointing  the 
turned  ends  of  an  ordinary  wrought-iron  clamp.  Useful 
for  drawing  the  halves  of  core-boxes  together,  and  numer- 
ous other  purposes  in  the  foundry. 

Dolomite. — Magnesian  limestone,  a  mineral  consist- 
ing of  carbonate  of  lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia  in 
somewhat  varied  proportions,  the  former  usually  prepon- 
derating with  about  20  per  cent  carbonate  of  iron.  See 
BASIC-PROCESS;  LIMESTONE. 

Double-hook. —Sometimes  termed  a  change -hook 
and  ram's-horn.  The  latter  name  is  suggestive  of  its  shape, 
which  consist  of  two  hooks,  turned  outwards,  forged  to  a 
third  one  immediately  underneath,  which  is  central  and 
turned  at  right  angles  to  the  double  hooks  above. 

It  is  used  for  passing  loads  that  are  slung  on  the  lower 
hook,  from  one  crane  to  another,  by  simply  inserting  the 
block-hook  of  another  crane  into  the  idle-hook  and  hoisting 
until  it  is  lifted  free  of  the  other. 


Down-gate.  146  braw-back. 

Down-gate,  or  "  down-runner"  sometimes  termed 
an  "upright/'  is  the  runner  immediately  connected  with 
the  runner  basin,  and  leads  to  the  casting  direct,  or  by 
means  of  draw-gates,  etc.  See  DRAW-RUNNER;  UPRIGHT- 
BUNKER;  GATES. 

Draft. — An  allowance  of  taper  on  a  pattern,  or  the 
parting  of  a  joint ;  the  object  being  to  obtain  a  free  separa- 
tion of  mould  and  pattern-surfaces  which,  if  left  straight, 
would  ceate  friction  and  cause  damage  to  the  mould.  See 
TAPER. 

Drag. — The  bottom,  or  nowel-part  of  a  flask.  See 
FLASKS. 

Drain. — A  hole  sunk  beneath  a  mould  in  the  pit  when 
there  is  danger  of  water  accumulating  there.  A  well  can 
be  sunk  some  distance  away,  into  which  the  water  will  flow, 
to  be  expelled  by  means  of  a  pump.  Cinder-beds  may  be 
made  to  answer  as  drains  by  laying  them  on  a  slant  and 
providing  a  well  at  their  lowest  point  for  the  water  to 
collect  in.  See  CINDER-BED. 

Dram  is  the  same  as  drachm.  The  avoirdupois  dram 
is  equivalent  to  27^ J  grains  troy;  the  apothecaries'  dram  is 
equivalent  to  60  grains  troy. 

Draw. — A  term  synonymous  with  shrink,  and  used  by 
some  to  express  certain  conditions  connected  with  the  phe- 
nomenon of  shrinkage.  Holes  or  depressions  caused  by 
natural  shrinkage  are  often  called  "  drawn  "  places.  See 
SHRINKAGE;  FEEDING;  SINKING-HEAD. 

Draw-back. — A  portion  of  mould,  which  owing  to 
some  peculiarity  of  form  in  the  pattern,  or  because  of  some 


Drawback  Plate.  147  Drawing  down. 

difficulty  presented  in  closing  or  finishing  the  mould,  must 
be  slided  back  or  lifted  away  altogether.  When  this  occurs 
in  moulds  that  are  made  entirely  in  flasks,  some  portion,  or 
all  of  a  cheek-part,  is  made  to  answer  by  attaching  inside 
bars,  or  a  connected  bottom-plate  to  carry  the  sand.  But, 
when  the  mould  is  all  contained  in  the  floor,  a  plate  with 
lifting-handles  is  cast,  on  which  to  carry  away  the  desired 
part.  The  plate  is  termed  a  drawback  plate.  See  CHEEK; 
FALSE  CORE. 

Drawback  Plate.— See  DRAWBACK. 

Draw-gates  are  so  called  because  they  are  set  be- 
tween the  pattern  and  a  down-gate,  a  slight  taper  per- 
mitting of  their  being  withdrawn  either  towards  the  mould 
or  in  the  opposite  direction,  whichever  is  the  most  con- 
venient. See  GATES;  DOWN-GATE. 

Drawr -hooks  is  a  simple  iron  or  steel  hook  for 
drawing  or  lifting  patterns  from  the  sand.  Ordinarily, 
a  common  eye  at  the  opposite  end  answers  for  lifting  by, 
but  an  excellent  combination  of  steel  hook  and  raw  hide 
mallet  may  now  be  obtained;  also  a  steel  hook  provided 
with  a  spherical  head  of  hard  rubber,  both  of  which  afford 
a  handy  means  for  rapping  small  patterns  as  well  as  draw- 
ing them. 

Drawing  Air. — A  common  but  incorrect  term  for 
the  violent  commotion  occurring  at  the  down-gate,  when, 
because  of  the  too  limited  area  of  basin-runner,  where  it 
connects  with  the  down-gate,  there  is  not  a  sufficient  body 
of  metal  to  keep  it  full,  and  thus  check  the  escape  of  ex- 
panded air  from  the  mould.  See  DOWN-GATE. 

Drawing-down. — When  the  cope  part  of  a  casting 
shows  an  unevenly  buckled  surface,  with  shell-scabs  in 


Dresser.  148  Drill. 

parts,  it  is  technically  spoken  of  as  "  drawn-down,"  or 
"drawn-in."  Although  this  phenomenon  is  not  unknown 
in  loam  and  dry-sand  work,  it  is  chiefly  in  green-sand 
copes  that  it  occurs.  Very  damp  copes  with  no  vents  are 
apt  to  be  drawn  down  as  above  described,  because  of  the 
rapid  generation  of  steam,  which  can  find  no  other  means 
of  escape.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when  the  mould  is 
long  in  filling. 

Sand  with  too  much  clay  is  always  liable  to  buckle  if  sub- 
jected to  a  long-continued  heat,  as  the  skin  dries-into  a 
cake,  expands,  and  buckles,  sometimes  falling  off  in  flakes 
before  the  mould  is  full. 

Silica,  or  fire-sand,  comparatively  free  from  lime,  brought 
up  to  the  requisite  degree  of  consistency  by  a  slight  ad- 
mixture of  clay,  will  invariably  hold  together  under  the 
severest  trials,  if  well  vented  with  a  small  wire,  in  order  to 
lead  the  steam  from  the  surface  to  the  outside.  In  impor- 
tant cases  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  cover  the  cope-vents 
with  loose  sand.  Vents,  if  left  uncovered,  permit  a  too 
free  escape  of  air  from  the  mould,  and  the  cope  surface  is 
to  that  extent  robbed  of  such  support  as  the  compressed 
air  within  gives  to  it.  See  VENTING. 

Dresser. — A  local  term  for  a  cleaner  or  chipper  of 
castings  ;  usually  it  means  a  man  that  can  perform  both 
operations.  See  CHIPPER;  CLEANER. 

Dressing. — The  preparatory  finishing  and  fashioning 
which  a  loam-mould  receives  before  the  final  blackening 
takes  place.  The  mould  is  moistened  with  water,  dressed 
with  cliinsing -slicks,  and  finished  with  the  requisite  tools 
See  FINISHING. 

Drill. — A  tooi  provided  for  boring  vents  and  gates 
through  hard  dry  sand  and  loam,  An  ordinary  brace  and 


Drop.  149  Dry  sand  Facing. 

bit,  or  an  ancient  bow-drill,  are  suitable  tools 
pose;  the  latter  making  a  very  efficient  one. 

Drop. — When  a  portion  of  mould  fall 
hanging  surface,  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  "  drop. 

Drop-gates  are  gates  which  connect 
ing  from  the  runner  basin  vertically.  They 
placed  for  mere  convenience,  or  with  the  view  of  obtaining" 
a  clean  casting  by  constructing  a  basin  above  that  may  be 
instantly  filled  with  metal,  and  thus  allow  the  casting  to  fill 
from  the  bottom,  with  no  possibility  of  dirt  entering  the 
mould.  See  GATES;  VESTING. 

Drying-kettles. — Perforated  iron  pans  for  drying 
moulds  with.  Another  description  of  kettles  for  drying 
pan-copes  that  are  struck  in  casings,  and  other  similar  pur- 
poses, is  readily  made  by  connecting  two  cast  rings  with 
vertical  rods  and  crossing  the  bottom  ring  with  loose  bars. 
Instead  of  a  ring  for  the  bottom,  a  whole  grate  may  be 
cast,  if  preferred  in  that  manner.  See  LAMP;  LANTERN. 

Drying-stove.— See  OVEN. 

Dry-sand  Facing. — Sand  prepared  exclusively  for 
facing  the  surface  of  a  dry-sand  mould.  Whilst  there  are, 
no  doubt,  many  good  mixtures  for  this  purpose,  the  fol- 
lowing will  always  be  found  reliable  and  trustworthy,  as  it 
works  well  in  finishing,  requires  little  or  no  venting,  may 
be  rammed  very  hard,  and  will  not  be  seriously  affected,  so 
far  as  the  mould  is  concerned,  if  it  should  not  be  thor- 
oughly dry.  Silicious  or  fire  sand  8,  moulding-sand  2, 
flour  1.  Let  the  above  ingredients  be  prepared  medium 
dry,  arid  mix  for  using  with  clay-water.  The  sands  men- 
tioned should  be  equivalent  to  the  Jersey  grades.  See 
FACING-SAND;  FACING. 


Dry-sand  Moulding.  150  Dumb-vent. 

Dry-sand  Moulding.— The  art  of  preparing  dried 
moulds,  either  in  flasks,  to  be  subsequently  dried  in  the 
oven,  or  in  the  floor,  when  the  drying  must  then  be  ac- 
complished by  suitably  improvised  means  before  casting. 
Moulding  in  dry-sand  admits  of  exceedingly  large  and  in- 
tricate castings  being  made  with  much  less  risk  than  in 
green-sand.  Moulds  rammed  in  flasks  may,  when  dry,  be 
placed  in  any  desired  position  for  casting,  without  any 
possibility  of  damage;  hence  cylinders  and  all  similar 
castings  are  moulded  in  dry-sand,  and  placed  in  a  vertical 
position  for  pouring. 

Dry-sand  facing  is  used  on  the  surface,  but  the  flasks 
may  be  rammed  with  common  sand  off  the  floor.  Usually 
the  moulds  are  blackened  and  finished  whilst  green,  and 
subsequently  dried,  closed,  and  cast.  See  DRY-SAND 
FACING;  GREEN-SAND  MOULDING;  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Ductility. — That  property  or  texture  of  bodies  which 
renders  it  practicable  to  draw  them  out  in  length  while 
their  thickness  is  diminished  without  any  actual  fracture 
of  thfcir  parts,  as  drawing  into  wire.  Gold  is  the  most 
ductile  of  the  metals,  after  which,  in  their  order  of  value, 
as  follows:  silver,  platinum,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  tin,  lead, 
nickel,  palladium,  cadmium.  See  METALS;  MALLEABILITY; 
STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Dulled -brass. — The  dead  appearance,  by  the  French 
styled  "mat"  is  obtained  on  brass  by  observing  the  follow- 
ing: Immerse  in  nitric  acid  200,  sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr. 
1.845)  100,  salt  1,  sulphate  of  zinc  2.  Very  large  objects 
should  have  a  mixture  of  nitric  acid  3,  sulphuric  acid  1, 
water  1,  sulphate  of  zinc  J.  Repeat  the  dipping  and  well- 
rinsing  till  the  desired  color  is  imparted.  See  DIPPING. 

Dumb- vent. —A  vent  from  a  hollow  core  led  to  some 
distance  by  means  of  an  underground  flue,  where  there  will 


Dummy-block.  151  Earths. 

be  no  possibility  of  sparks  igniting  the  gas  and  causing  an 
explosion.     See  VESTING. 

Dummy-block. — A  brick  and  loam  model  abound 
which  to  form  a  jacket  or  other  core  by  means  of  the 
spindle  and  sweep-board,  the  latter  being  the  means  for 
forming  the  dummy-block  also.  When  the  core  has  been 
dried  the  block  is  picked  out  piecemeal,  leaving  the  jacket- 
core  standing;  hence  the  name.  See  JACKET-CORE. 

Dump. — A  name  given  to  the  dirt  or  foundry  waste- 
heap. 

Dusting-bag.  —  A  blacking-bag.  See  BLACKING- 
BAG. 

Dyeing-metals.— See  STAINS  FOR  METALS. 


E. 

Earths. — The  solid  matters  of  the  earth,  including 
rocks,  etc.,  are  composed  principally  of  combustible  ele- 
ments, as  aluminum,  potassium,  magnesium,  calcium, 
and  carbon,  in  combination  with  oxygen.  The  fact  of  the 
rarity  of  these  metals  in  a  free  state  is  due  to  their  extreme 
combustibility.  The  earths  proper  do  not  change  vegetable 
colors;  in  acids  they  are  soluble,  and  may  be  subsequently 
precipitated  from  their  solutions  by  potash,  soda,  or  am- 
monia. The  alkaline  earths,  as  barytes,  strontia,  lime, 
etc.,  are  soluble  in  water,  and  have  the  property  of  neutral- 
izing the  strongest  acids,  and  changing  vegetable  colors 
in  general.  The  mineral  elements  composing  the  chief 
mass  of  soils  are  derived  from  the  breaking-up  of  the 
various  rocks  by  the  action  of  heat,  frost,  air,  and  moisture. 
According  to  the  composition  of  the  rocks  so  will  the  soil 


Earthenware.  152  Effervescence. 

be  that  is  derived  from  them :  clayey  when  from  argillace- 
ous rocks,  calcerous  from  lime,  and  sandy  from  siliceous 
rocks,  besides  which  must  be  included  organic  substances, 
a  portion  of  liberated  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  etc.  See 
ALKALI. 

Earthenware.— See  POTTERY  -  MOULDING  ;  PORCE- 
LAIN. 

Ebullition. — When  water  is  heated  bubbles  of  vapor 
form  at  the  bottom,  rise  to  the  cooler  water  above,  and  are 
condensed.  As  the  heat  continues,  however,  these  bubbles 
reach  the  surface  and  escape  into  the  air,  causing  the  agi- 
tation called  boiling  or  ebullition.  The  boiling-point  of  a 
liquid  is  determined  by  the  temperature  at  which  ebulli- 
tion takes  place.  Water  boils  at  212°,  sulphuric  ether  at 
96°,  alcohol  at  176°,  oil  of  turpentine  at  316°,  sulphuric 
acic  at  620°,  mercury  at  662°. 

Eccentric-clamp. — An  arrangement  for  lifting  fin- 
ished stonework,  which  might  be  made  useful  in  the  foun- 
dry for  lifting  cores  of  some  descriptions,  and  thus  obviate 
the  necessity  for  hooks  and  staples.  The  weight  of  the 
object  turns  eccentrics,  which  bind  rubber-faced  plates 
firmly  against  the  sides.  The  width  is  adjusted  by  turn- 
buckles  at  the  sides. 

Edge  •  smoother. — A  moulder's  tool  for  finishing 
angles.  The  two  sides  of  this  smoother,  acting  together, 
bring  the  edge  up  sharp  and  true. 

Effervescence. — The  commotion  produced  in  fluids 
by  some  part  of  the  mass  suddenly  taking  the  elastic  form 
and  escaping  rapidly  in  numerous  bubbles. 


Elastic  Gum.  153  Electro-plating. 

Elastic  Gum.— See  INDIA-RUBBER. 

Elasticity,  or  spring,  is  a  property  of  bodies  to  re- 
sume their  original  form,  immediately  the  force  by  which 
they  may  have  been  deflected  from  it  is  removed. 

Elastic  Moulds. — These  moulds  are  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  casts,  in  plaster  or  wax,  from  medals  and 
other  objects  having  parts  that  are  undercut.  The  moulds 
are  made  by  surrounding  the  object  with  a  barrier  of  clay 
as  high  as  the  thickness  of  mould  required,  and,  after  oil- 
ing the  surface,  filling  the  space  with  melted  glue,  which, 
when  cold,  can  if  necessary  be  cut  in  suitable  pieces  for 
delivering  smoothly.  The  pieces,  when  put  together  again, 
form  the  mould  in  which  to  run  the  plaster  or  wax.  If 
the  undercutting  is  not  too  deep,  these  moulds  will  yield 
sufficient  to  admit  of  ordinary  flat  casts  being  taken  whole, 
without  cutting.  See  PLASTER- CASTS;  UNDERCUT. 

Electric  Crane. — A  substitution  of  the  dynamo- 
electric  machine  for  the  steam  or  other  methods  usually 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  working  cranes.  These  cranes 
have  met  with  almost  universal  favor,  and  are  a  marvel- 
lous improvement  on  some  antiquated  specimens  which 
have  been  removed  to  allow  of  their  introduction.  They 
are  eminently  adapted  for  foundry  purposes.  See  CRANES. 

Electric  Furnace. — The  Siemens  Electric  Furnace 
is  used  for  melting  metals  that  are  of  a  highly  refractory 
nature,  using  a  guarded  crucible.  It  is  compact,  needs  no 
chimney,  is  more  economical,  and  melts  more  rapidly,  be- 
sides excluding  air  from  the  crucible. 

Electro  •  plating.  —  The  process  of  covering  one 
metal  with  a  thin  film  of  another  by  the  aid  of  electricity. 
See  PLATING. 


Electrotype.  154  Elements. 

Electrotype. — A  cast  of  metal  upon  a  mould  by  gal- 
vanic action.  A  wax  impression  of  the  type  or  engraving 
is  coated  with  black  lead,  washed  with  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  and  dusted  with  iron-filings,  which  leaves  a  film 
of  copper  on  the  surface,  after  which  it  is  suspended  in  a 
bath  of  :  sulphate  of  copper  2,  sulphuric  acid  1,  water  to 
stand  it  at  140°  Beaume,  and  connected  with  the  negative 
electrode  of  a  battery.  The  sulphate  of  copper  is  decom- 
posed when  the  circuit  is  closed,  the  metallic  copper  going 
to  the  negative  plate,  which  is  the  plumbago-mould. 

The  deposit  or  shell  is  afterwards  backed  with  molten 
type-metal.  See  STEREOTYPE;  TYPE. 

Elements. — Modern  science  considers  matter  as  exist- 
ing in  four  forms — imponderable,  gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid; 
while  by  elements  are  understood  the  simple  component 
ingredients  of  bodies  under  whatever  form  they  are  recog- 
nized by  the  chemists.  The  number  of  these  elements  is 
about  64,  some  of  which  have  been  known  from  ancient 
times — gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  iron,  and  mercury  in 
particular;  others  are  of  more  recent  date.  The  elements 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  metallic  and  non-metallic 
— the  former  numbering  52,  the  latter  13.  Below  is  given  a 
table  of  the  elementary  substances  now  known,  in  alpha- 
betical order: 

METALLIC. 

Aluminum  Cerium  Gold  Manganese 

Antimony  Chromium  Indium  Mercury 

Arsenic  Cobalt  Iridium  Molybdenum 

Barium  Copper  Iron  Nickel 

Bismuth  Didymium  Lanthanum  Niobium 

Cadmium  Erbium  Lead  Osmium 

Caesium  Gallium  Lithium  Palladium 

Calcium  Glucinum  Magnesium  Platinum 


Elevator. 


155 


Embroidery  Impressions. 


Potassium 
Rhodium 
Rubidium 
Ruthenium 
Silver 

Sodium 
Strontium 
Tantalum 
Tellurium 
Thallium 

Thorium 
Tin 
Titanium 
Tungsten 
Uranium 

Vanadium 
Yttrium 
Zinc 
Zirconium 

Boron 
Bromine 
Carbon 
Chlorine 


NON-METALLIC. 

Fluorine  Nitrogen  Selenium 

Hydrogen         Oxygen  Silicon 

Iodine  Phosphorus  Sulphur 


Four  of  these  elements — chlorine,  hydrogen, nitrogen,  and 
oxygen — are  gases,  and  fluorine  is  probably  a  gas  also.  Two 
are  liquids  at  ordinary  atmospheric  temperatures,  viz.,  mer- 
cury and  bromine.  The  element  gallium  recently  found 
in  certain  zinc  ores  is  also  said  to  be  a  liquid,  the  remain- 
ing elements  are  all  solids.  A  description  of  the  chief  ele- 
ments will  be  found  in  their  respective  order  throughout 
this  work.  See  METALS. 

Elevator. — A  mechanical  contrivance  for  lifting  sand, 
coal,  ores,  grain,  etc.,  from  the  floor,  or  from  prepared 
boxes,  to  a  higher  elevation  to  be  there  deposited  by  means 
of  strong  belts  carrying  a  series  of  buckets  travelling  over 
drums  placed  at  each  end  of  the  distance  travelled;  lifting 
the  material  at  the  bottom  turn,  and  depositing  at  the  top. 
See  HOIST;  CONVEYER. 

Embroidery  Impressions  on  Cast  Iron. — Im- 
pressions of  lace  embroidery  and  similar  objects  can  be  pro- 
duced by  following  the  instructions  given  by  Mr.  Outerbridge 
in  a  paper  read  at  a  meeting  of  the  Franklin  Institute, 
which  is  substantially  as  follows:  First,  carefully  imbed  the 
object  to  be  operated  upon  in  charcoal-dust  confined  in  a 
cast-iron  box.  After  securing  the  lid  heat  slowly  in  the 


Emerald.  156  Emery  wheel. 

oven,  and  when  the  moisture  has  all  escaped  increase  the 
heat  until  the  blue  smoke  escaping  from  the  box  ceases. 
The  box  is  then  heated  up  to  a  white  heat  and  so  kept  for 
two  hours,  and  then  allowed  to  cool.  By  holding  the  ob- 
ject in  a  gas-flame  it  will  be  discovered  whether  it  has  been 
thoroughly  carbonized  or  not;  if  the  operation  has  been 
successful  it  will  not  glow  when  removed  from  the  flame. 
The  object,  after  thorough  carbonization,  is  secured  to  a 
green-sand  surface,  and  the  metal  cast  over  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  If  care  is  exercised,  a  number  of  impressions 
may  be  taken  from  the  same  substance.  See  HAND-WRIT- 
ING IMPRESSIONS  IN  CAST  IRON. 

Emerald  is  cut  and  polished  for  the  best  jewelry ;  it 
is  known  from  beryl  by  its  deeper  and  richer  green.  The 
finest  of  these  stones  come  from  the  neighborhood  of  Peru. 
Emerald  fuses  with  difficulty  into  a  porous  glass.  Its  com- 
position is:  silex  64.5,  glucine  13,  alumina  16,  lime  1.6, 
oxide  of  chrome  3.25  ;  specific  gravity,  2.70.  See  BERYL  ; 
PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Emery  is  an  impure  kind  of  corundum,  gray  to  dark- 
brown  in  color.  Most  of  this  substance  is  artificially  colored 
a  dark,  rich  brown  for  commerce,  and  for  all  common  pur- 
poses, as  emery-cloth,  is  usually  adulterated  with  iron-slag, 
garnet,  etc.  It  is  opaque,  of  slightly  glistening  metallic 
lustre;  hardness  equal  to  corundum,  and  of  about  the  same 
specific  gravity  and  composition  as  the  latter.  Even  the 
sapphire  and  oriental  ruby,  the  hardest  substances  next 
to  the  diamond,  can  be  cut  and  polished  with  emery.  See 
CORUNDUM;  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Emery-wheel. — A  disk  of  corundum,  or  emery  com- 
position, keyed  to  a  mandrel  and  rotated  by  a  pulley  and 
belt ;  used  principally  for  grinding  and  polishing  metals. 
See  CORUNDUM  ;  EMERY. 


Enamel.  157  Evaporation. 

Enamel. — A  shining,  vitrified  substance  employed  as 
an  indestructible  coating  to  various  articles  of  taste  and 
utility.  The  basis  of  all  enamels  is  a  perfectly  transparent 
and  fusible  glass,  which  is  subsequently  rendered  either 
semi-transparent  or  opaque  by  admixture  with  metallic 
oxides. 

Engine  for  Blower. — It  is  always  best  to  have  the 
blower  driven  by  an  independent  engine,  as  by  this  arrange- 
ment the  annoyance  and  consequent  loss  caused  by  the 
breaking-down  of  any  portion  of  the  driving  machinery 
which  is  common  for  all  purposes  is  saved,  and  as  these  an- 
noyances generally  occur  when  the  blast  is  in  full  swing  the 
value  of  an  independent  engine  is  wonderfully  enhanced. 
An  experimental  knowledge  of  the  above  facts  has  resulted 
in  the  production  of  a  blower  and  engine  combined,  which 
machine  is  becoming  more  popular  every  day.  See  BLAST; 
BLOWER  ;  CUPOLA. 

Entablature  is  that  part  of  an  architectural  design 
which  surmounts  the  columns  and  rests  upon  the  capitals. 
In  this  sense  the  term  is  applied  by  engineers  to  similar 
parts  of  machinery-framing  wherein  such  designs  are  in- 
truded. 

Equipment.  —  General  appliances,  tools,  and  ma- 
chinery necessary  for  conducting  a  foundry  or  other  manu- 
facturing establishment. 

Evaporation  generally  signifies  the  dissipation  of  the 
volatile  parts  of  a  compound  body.  Natural  evaporation 
is  the  conversion  of  water  into  vapor,  which,  in  consequence 
of  becoming  lighter  than  the  atmosphere,  is  raised  consid- 
erably above  the  earth,  and  afterwards,  by  a  partial  con- 
densation, forms  clouds.  See  VAPOR, 


Exhaust  Tumbling-barrels.  158  Expanding  Alloy. 

Exhaust  Tumbling-barrels.— The  advantages  of 
this  useful  adjunct  to  foundry  operations  is  thus  described : 
Not  alone  does  this  machine  do  away  with  the  horrible 
clatter  and  din  in  the  mill  ing-room,  but  it  also  keeps  the 
room  clear  of  dust,  besides  accomplishing  an  actual  saving 
of  twenty-five  per  cent  in  time  in  cleaning  the  castings. 

The  staves  of  the  machine  are  made  of  two-inch  well- 
seasoned  oak  timber,  lined  with  hard  steel  plates.  Each 
stave  is  so  bolted  that,  no  matter  where  the  machine 
stops,  the  staves  can  be  taken  out  and  replaced  without 
trouble.  As  soon  as  the  sand  is  loosened  from  the  castings 
and  is  pulverized  sufficiently  fine  for  the  exhaust  to  lift  it, 
it  is  immediately  carried  away  to  a  box  or  receptacle  which 
may  be  placed  at  any  point  in  or  out  of  the  mill-room. 
This  taking  away  the  dust  is  where  the  saving  of  time  in 
cleaning  is  accomplished. 

These  barrels  are  substantially  made  and  nicely  finished, 
and  have  a  very  attractive  appearance.  The  barrels  are 
operated  by  belt  to  the  first  one,  and  the  rest  are  run  by 
friction  bearings.  As  many  barrels  as  are  needed  can  be 
placed  side  by  side  and  operated  by  the  same  belt.  Any 
one  barrel  can  be  stopped  or  started  at  will  by  turning  a 
wheel- handle  which  raises  or  lowers  the  barrels  from  con- 
tact with  the  friction  wheel.  They  are  the  most  complete, 
easiest-running,  most  noiseless,  cleanest,  and  most  satisfac- 
tory tumbling-barrels  that  can  be  made. 

The  foundry-supply  companies  furnish  these  machines 
either  octagon  or  square  shaped,  as  well  as  exhaust-fan  for 
carrying  away  the  dust.  See  TUMBLING-BARREL. 

Expanding  Alloy. — Lead  9,  antimony  2,  bismuth 
1.  This  alloy  is  useful  to  fill  holes  in  castings,  as  it  does 
not  contract  and  become  loose  like  lead  or  cast  iron. 
What  are  termed  expanding  alloys  invariably  contain  bis- 


Expansion.  159  Eye-bar. 

muth  and  antimony  in  some  proportion.  This  special 
quality  has  rendered  these  metals  valuable  for  type-metal 
composition,  etc.  See  BISMUTH;  ANTIMONY;  TYPE- 
METAL. 

Expansion  is  the  enlargement  or  increase  of  bulk  in 
substances,  chiefly  by  means  of  heat.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  general  effects  of  heat  and  is  common  to  all  bodies 
whether  solid,  fluid,  or  in  the  aeriform  state.  Expansion 
by  heat  varies  greatly.  The  following  table  gives  the  linear 
expansions  of  several  useful  metals  from  0°  to  100°  C.,  the 
length  at  0°  being  taken  as  unity : 

Mptil  Expansion 

eta1'  0°  to  100°. 

Platinum,  cast 000907 

Gold,  cast , .     .001451 

Silver,  cast .001936 

Copper 001708 

Iron 001228 

Cast  steel 001110 

Bismuth 001374 

Tin 002269 

Lead 002948 

Zinc 002905 

Cadmium 003102 

Aluminum 002336 

Brass  (copper  72,  zinc  28) 001879 

Bronze  (copper  86,  tin  10,  zinc  4) 001802 

See  CONTRACTION;  SHRINKAGE. 

Explosion. — A  sudden  and  violent  expansion  of  an 
aerial  or  other  elastic  fluid,  by  which  its  parts  are  separated 
with  a  loud  noise.  See  VENTING. 

Eye-bar. — A  common  chisel  or  pointed  bar  with  an 


Eye-bolt.  160  Facing. 

eye  forged  at  the  opposite  end— a  useful  implement  in  a 
foundry. 

Eye-bolt  is  an  ordinary  bolt  with  a  round  or  oval  eye 
at  one  end  to  receive  a  hook,  rope,  or  chain.  Bolts  of  this 
class  may  be  put  to  an  infinite  variety  of  uses  in  the  foun- 
dry, if  general  arrangements  for  lifting  cores,  flasks,  etc. , 
are  made  favorable  to  their  adoption.  A  welded  ring  in 
the  eye  changes  it  into  a  ring-bolt. 

Eye-piece. — A  circular  disk  of  iron  containing  a  cen- 
tral sheet  of  mica,  usually  placed  opposite  to  each  tuyere, 
on  the  wind-box  of  the  cupola;  its  object  being  to  permit 
a  view  of  the  inside  through  the  transparent  mica.  It 
works  on  a  pivot,  so  that  if  necessary  it  may  be  moved 
aside  and  access  had  to  the  inside  of  the  cupola  if  it  is 
desired  to  remove  any  accumulated  slag  from  the  tuyere. 
See  CUPOLA;  SLAG;  TUYEKE;  WIND-BOX. 

F. 

Facets. — The  flat  surfaces  which  bound  the  angles  of 
crystals.  See  CRYSTALLIZATION. 

Facia. — A  broad,  flat,  projecting  part  of  a  building,  as 
the  bands  of  an  architrave,  larmier,  etc. 

Facing.  —  Foundry  facing,  employed  for  intimately 
mixing  with  the  facing-sand,  or  spreading  upon  the  sur- 
face of  moulds,  to  prevent  the  molten  metal  from  penetrat- 
ing the  sand,  as  well  as  to  impart  a  smooth,  fine  skin 
to  the  surface  of  the  casting.  When  properly  used  it  is 
an  unmistakably  good  help  in  making  smooth  and  clean 
castings,  profitable  alike  to  the  moulder  and  the  employer. 
Facings  are  composed  of  finely  ground  and  bolted  fire- 
proof substances,  principally  carbon,  as  charred  wood, 


Facing-sand.  161  Facing  sand. 

coal,  graphite,  etc.  They  are  now  so  well  understood  by 
the  manufacturers  that,  by  making  application  and  stating 
for  what  description  of  casting  it  is  to  be  use,d,  founders 
can  be  supplied  with  a  facing  exactly  suitable.  See 
BLACKING-BAG;  SEA-COAL;  GRAPHITE;  FACING-SAND. 

Facing-sand  is  the  sand  used  for  facing  or  covering 
the  surface  of  the  mould,  and  necessarily  that  with  which 
the  metal  is  brought  into  immediate  contact  when  the  cast- 
ing is  poured.  Sand  for  this  purpose  should  possess  prop- 
erties that  will  enable  it  to  resist  pressure  and  heat  from 
the  molten  metal  as  well  as  permit  free  and  uninterrupted 
egress  to  the  gases  which  are  generated.  Hitherto  this 
subject  has  been  left  to  mere  chance,  trying  first  one  sand 
and  then  another,  with  the  usual  loss  and  disappointment 
which  attend  such  methods,  until  the  right  substance  has 
at  last  been  found.  It  is  now  positively  known  just  what 
sand  will  give  a  clean  casting,  free  from  adhering  sand. 
To  be  a  positively  good  moulding-sand  it  must  contain  no 
substance  that  will  act  chemically  upon  the  molten  metal, 
nor  should  the  high  temperature  of  the  metal  aifect  it 
adversely.  The  difficulty  in  meeting  these  conditions  is 
apparent  when  we  consider  that  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture of  molten  metal  the  fewer  become  the  substances  that 
will  successfully  resist  it.  Three  per  cent  of  metallic  ox- 
ides in  sand  seriously  diminishes  its  refractory  qualities, 
and  one  per  cent  of  lime  present  measurably  lessens  its 
value  as  a  good  moulding-sand,  as  the  carbonate  is  acted 
upon  by  the  intense  heat  and  caused  to  give  off  carbonic- 
acid  gas,  which  disturbs  the  surface  of  the  mould  during 
its  escape,  causing  honeycombed  and  rough  surfaces  on 
the  castings. 

Should  caustic  lime  be  present,  its  fluxing  properties  will 
manifest  themselves  by  melting  into  the  form  of  a  slag  and 
adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  casting. 


Faint-run.  162  Falling  doors. 

Sands  which  contain  the  largest  proportion  of  silica, 
from  one  to  three  per  cent  of  magnesia,  with  as  much  alu- 
mina as  willjmpart  cohesiveness  and  plasticity,  are  under 
almost  all  circumstances  the  best  for  facing-sand.  Lime 
should  not  be  present  in  even  the  smallest  proportion.  It 
is  seldom  that  sand  with  the  above  proportions  can  be 
found  in  nature,  but  a  chemical  knowledge  of  these  mat- 
ters enables  us  to  choose  such  grades  as  will,  by  suitable 
admixture  and  blending  of  two  or  more  kinds,  produce  a 
mixture  containing  known  proportions  of  the  elements 
necessary  for  meeting  all  emergencies. 

Facing-sand  is  termed  strong  or  weak  according  to  the 
amount  of  alumina  or  clay  which  enters  into  its  composi- 
tion; and  the  same  term  is  applied  with  reference  to  a  high 
or  low  percentage  of  coal  used  in  the  mixture.  See  ANAL- 
YSIS; VENTING;  DKY-SAND  FACING;  OLD-SAND;  KOCK- 

SAND. 

Faint-run. — The  opposite  of  sharp  and  clearly-de- 
fined impressions  on  the  casting.  When  fine  carving,  trac- 
ing, and  other  outlines  on  a  casting  are  blurred,  presenting 
shining,  imperfect  edges  and  cold-shot  marks,  the  casting 
is  pronounced  as  faint-run.  Some  of  the  chief  causes  for 
this  are  unequal  distribution  of  the  runners,  a  too  free  use 
of  carbon  facing,  wet  or  hard  sand,  dull  metal,  lack  of 
porosity  in  the  sand,  or  perhaps  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  of  the  causes  mentioned,  all  of  which  it  is  the  easiest 
matter  conceivable  to  avoid  when  the  intelligence  is  made 
equal  to  the  exigency.  See  COLD-SHOT;  VENTING. 

Falling-doors. — Hinged  doors  attached  to  the  un- 
derside of  a  cupola,  which,  when  the  metal  has  all  run  out, 
may  be  suddenly  dropped,  permitting  the  slag  and  cinders 
to  fall  out  into  the  pit  below.  See  CUPOLA. 


False-core.  163  Feeding-head. 

False-core. — A  technical  term  used  chiefly  by  mould- 
ers of  fine  art  work,  statuary,  etc.,  meaning  loose  pieces  of 
mould,  or  drawbacks,  that  must  be  formed  at  the  under- 
cut portions  of  a  model  or  pattern. 

These  false-cores  are  rammed  carefully  in  their  several 
places,  and  separating  joints  formed  on  their  exterior  sur- 
faces, the  impression  of  which  being  taken  in  the  main  sec- 
tion, or  cheek  of  the  mould,  forms  a  seating  into  which  they 
are  subsequently  fitted  and  secured,  when  they  are  with- 
drawn from  the  model.  See  DRAWBACK  ;  STATUARY- 
FOUNDING;  MODELLING;  PLASTER-CAST;  UNDER-CUT. 

Fan. — A  rotative  blowing-machine,  consisting  of  vanes 
turning  upon  an  axis,  to  force  a  current  of  air  into  a  fur- 
nace or  for  the  purpose  of  exhausting.  See  BLOWER  ; 
BLAST. 

Fats  and  Fatty  Acids.— See  OILS. 

Feeding. — The  process  of  supplying  hot  fluid  metal 
to  the  interior  of  a  casting,  to  compensate  for  the  gradual 
shrinkage  as  it  passes  from  a  fluid  to  a  solid  state.  The 
head,  occupying  an  elevated  position,  imparts  pressure;  the 
feeding-rod,  being  kept  hot,  serves  to  maintain  communica- 
tion with  the  interior  by  preserving  a  passage  through 
which  the  molten  metal  is  forced  by  reason  of  the  pressure 
exerted  at  the  feeding-head  above,  where  the  supply  is  kept 
constant  until  the  mass  has  solidified.  This  process  is  by 
some  improperly  termed  churning.  See  FEEDING-HEAD; 
FEEDING-ROD;  EISER;  SHRINKAGE. 

Feeding-head. — In  some  localities  this  is  called 
slirink-head  and  sinking -head.  It  is  a  continuation  of 
the  rising-head  to  some  distance  higher  than  the  latter 
is  usually  made,  and  is  generally  formed  of  sand  within  an 


Feeding-rod.  164  Ferro  manganese. 

iron  box.  If  the  proportion  of  feeding-head  be  equal  to 
the  casting,  the  latter  will  be  effectually  fed  with  metal 
sufficient  to  make  good  the  depreciation  from  shrinkage; 
but  if  the  riser  must  necessarily  be  much  smaller,  propor- 
tionately, than  the  casting,  it  will  congeal,  or  set,  ahead  of 
the  latter  with  the  result  of  unsoundness,  if  the  feeding-rod 
is  not  resorted  to.  See  FEEDING;  FEEDING-HOD. 

Feeding-rod. — A  wrought-iron  rod,  from  £  to  f  inch 
diameter  and  of  a  suitable  length,  for  use  in  keeping  open 
the  communication  betwixt  riser  and  casting.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  feed  castings,  these  rods  should  be  kept  clean 
and  hot,  occasionally  changing  the  one  in  use  for  a  clean 
one  that  has  been  previously  heated.  By  this  means  the 
hole  can  be  kept  free  until  the  casting  has  completed  its 
shrinkage;  otherwise  the  hole  congeals  prematurely,  and 
the  casting  suffers  in  consequence.  See  FEEDING. 

Feldspar. — Feldspar  is  a  principal  constituent  of 
many  rocks.  Clays  seem,  very  generally,  to  have  resulted, 
at  least  in  great  part,  from  its  decomposition.  Kaolin,  or 
China  clay,  is  considered  to  be  decomposed  feldspar.  See 
KAOLIN;  EOCKS. 

Feiiton's  Anti-friction  Metal.  —  Grain-tin  8, 
purified  zinc  7,  antimony  1.  Another:  copper  10,  tin  10, 
zinc  10.  See  ANTI-FRICTION  METAL. 

Fern-leaf  Impressions  in  Cast   Iron.— See 

EMBROIDERY  IMPRESSIONS  IN  CAST  IRON. 

Ferro-maiigaiiese.—  Pig-iron  containing  from  25 
to  75  per  cent  of  manganese,  employed  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  mild  steel  by  the  Siemens,  Bessemer,  and 
crucible  methods.  See  MANGANESE  ;  SPIEGELEISEN  ; 
OPEN-HEARTH  STEEL. 


Pettier.  165  Fin. 

Fettler. — A  local  name  for  a  chipper  or  cleaner.  See 
DRESSER. 

Fettling. — A  puddler's  term  for  preparing  the  pud- 
dliiig-fur.nace  hearth  with  a  mixture  composed  chiefly  of  old 
furnace-bottoms,  crushed  and  mixed  with  tap-cinder  and 
scales.  See  MILL-CINDER  ;  MALLEABLE  IRON  ;  PUDDLE- 
STEEL. 

File-cleaner. — A  piece  of  wire  card,  6  by  4  inches, 
nailed  to  a  piece  of  wood  is  a  good  file-cleaner.  Such  a  con- 
trivance is  also  a  much  better  rasp  for  soft  cores  than  files. 
This  card  may  be  procured  from  an  old  carding-engine  in 
the  cotton-factories. 

Fillet. — A  rounded  corner  on  a  mould.  There  is  less 
danger  of  shrinkage  flaws  when  corners  are  filleted.  Flex- 
ible metallic  filleting,  any  size  required,  may  be  obtained  at 
a  nominal  figure,  so  that  no  pattern  need  be  left  without. 
When  fillets  are  left  to  be  carved  off  by  the  moulder  it 
costs  twice  the  amount  for  labor,  and,  unless  the  operation 
is  performed  by  a  good  mechanic,  the  result  is  invariably  a 
botched  job. 

Filling  in. — Setting  the  inside  courses  of  bricks  by 
the  loam-moulder.  In  heavy  walling  and  solid  cores  the 
faces  or  outer  courses  are  built  strong,  but  the  filling-in 
courses  are  set  wide  apart  and  the  spaces  filled  with  fine 
cinders  to  lead  away  the  gases.  This  is  a  very  common 
term  in  a  foundry.  Placing  sand  inside  a  flask  or  any  other 
receptacle,  as  a  riddle,  sieve,  etc.,  is  usually  called  filling 
in.  See  BRICKING  UP. 

Fill. — Metal  that  flows  past  the  casting  in  a  thin  ridge 
at  the  joining  edges  of  a  mould.  In  some  cases  the  edges 
are  purposely  pared  down  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  the 


Fine  art  Mouldign.  166  Finger-piece. 

two  edges  meeting.  Especially  is  this  rule  to  be  observed 
in  loam  and  dry-sand  work,  where  in  the  event  of  too 
close  contact  the  mould  is  damaged  by  a  crushed  joint. 
The  term  crush  is  common  when  any  part  of  a  mould  is 
damaged  by  undue  pressure,  etc. 

Fine-art  Moulding. — This  branch  includes  mould- 
ing of  statuary,  groups,  figures,  busts,  etc.,  in  bronze  by 
the  cire  perdue  and  other  processes  common  to  the  art, 
besides  the  general  work  connected  with  clay  and  wax 
modelling,  taking  plaster  and  wax  casts,  etc.  See  MODEL- 
LING ;  PLASTEK-CAST  ;  STATUARY-FOUNDING. 

% 

Finery-furnace  —  also  called  a  refinery  —  consists 
of  a  rectangular  hearth  formed  by  the  junction  of  four 
troughs,  through  which  cold  water  circulates  to  prevent 
them  from  fusing.  A  bottom  is  formed  within  the  troughs 
with  prepared  sand,  with  a  droop  towards  the  tap-hole. 
The  blast  enters  the  hearth  through  tuyeres  which  incline 
at  an  angle  of  about  28°.  Above  the  hearth  is  a  chimney 
about  17  feet  high,  built  on  four  pillars  in  order  that  the 
air  may  have  free  access  to  the  fire  on  all  sides.  The  tup- 
hole  is  at  the  lower  end  of  the  hearth,  and  through  it  the 
metal  and  slag  run  out  on  plates,  where  it  is  at  once  cooled 
by  copious  streams  of  water.  This  sudden  cooling  of  the 
molten  mass  causes  the  carbon  to  combine  chemically  and 
produces  a  silvery-white  metal.  This  is  the  preliminary 
process  before  puddling  the  iron  in  the  reverberatory  fur- 
nace. See  MALLEABLE  IRON  ;  PUDDLING-FURNACE. 

Finger-piece. — A  tongue  or  narrow  strip  attached 
to  the  sweep-board  by  the  loam-moulder,  when  he  forms  a 
perfectly  true  loam-bed  on  the  brickwork,  on  which  to  rest 
a  bracket  or  any  other  piece  of  pattern  which  is  to  form  a 
part  of  the  finished  casting.  The  moulder  marks  his  true 


Finishing.  167  Fire-clay. 

depth  by  means  of  a  square  held  against  the  spindle  ;  and 
the  finger-piece  may  then  be  screwed  fast  and  true  to  the 
line. 

This  is  very  superior  practice  to  the  common  one  of  at- 
tempting to  bed  such  work  on  soft  loam,  as,  after  the  bed 
has  been  struck,  it  may  be  made  firm  almost  immediately 
with  a  charcoal  fire  in  an  old  riddle  or  lamp.  See  LOAM- 
MOULDING  ;  SPINDLE  ;  SWEEP  ;  LAMP. 

Finishing". — This  term  refers  generally  to  all  the  pro- 
cesses connected  with  preparing  a  mould  for  casting  after 
the  pattern  has  been  withdrawn  ;  but  especially  to  manipu- 
lations with  the  regular  moulder's  tools,  such  as  smoothing 
over  the  blackening  after  it  has  been  brushed  or  swabbed 
over  dry-sand  and  loam  moulds.  See  DRESSING  ;  LOAM- 
MOULDING. 

Finishing-loam  .—See  SKINNING-LOAM. 
Finishing-rolls. — See  MALLEABLE  IKON  ;  BOLLS. 

Fire-hrick. — A  brick  made  of  fire-clay,  and  other  re- 
fractory materials  for  use  in  cupolas  and  other  furnaces,  and 
for  that  reason  must  be  capable  of  sustaining  intense  heat 
without  fusing.  See  REFRACTORY  MATERIALS;  FIRE-CLAY. 

Fire-bridge. — A  hollow  cast  frame,  encased  in  fire- 
brick, which  is  built  between  the  hearth  and  the  grate  of 
a  reverberatory  furnace.  See  EEVERBERATORY  FURNACE. 

Fire-clay  is  the  kind  of  clay  which,  when  mixed  with 
other  refractory  ingredients,  is  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  fire-bricks,  crucibles,  glass  pots,  retorts,  etc.,  which  re- 
quire to  withstand  intense  heat.  It  is  found  abundantly 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  chiefly  in  the  coal 
measures.  Fire-clay  to  be  of  value  should  be  comparatively 


Fire-sand.  168  Flange-smoother. 

free  from  ferrous  oxide  (or  combination  of  iron  with 
oxygen),  calcium  carbonate  (or  substances  such  as  limestone, 
chalk,  marble,  etc.),  and  iron  pyrites,  because  at  very  high 
temperatures  these  bodies  would  combine  with  the  silica  of 
the  clay  with  the  formation  of  fusible  vitreous  silicates. 
See  KEFRACTORY  MATERIAL. 

Fire-sand,  is  the  name  given  to  all  foundry  sands  that 
are  composed  principally  of  coarse  grains  of  quartz,  inter- 
mixed with  more  or  less  alumina  or  clayey  sand.  Because 
of  the  highly  refractory  nature  of  these  siliceous  sands  they 
are  usually  termed  "  fire-sands."  See  FACING-SAND  ;  KE- 
FRACTORY MATERIAL. 

Flame  is  the  luminous  phenomenon  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  gases  and  is,  hence,  fire  in  motion.  Sub- 
stances which  burn  with  flame  are  either  gases  already  or 
they  contain  a  gas  which  is  set  free  by  the  heat  of  combus- 
tion. But  flame  does  not  necessarily  produce  light.  In 
the  burning  of  pure  oxygen  and  hydrogen  there  is  intense 
flame,  but  the  light  is  so  weak  that  it  can  scarcely  be  seen. 
If  we  sift  a  little  charcoal-dust  into  this  non-luminous 
flame,  the  particles  of  solid  carbon  are  instantly  heated  to 
incandescence,  a  bright  flash  of  light  resulting.  Therefore 
the  conditions  of  illumination  are,  first,  an  intense  heat, 
and,  second,  a  solid  placed  in  the  midst  of  it,  which  remains 
fixed  and  gives  out  the  light. 

The  lighting  power  of  a  gas  depends  upon  the  proportion 
of  carbon  it  contains,  the  particles  of  which  become  glow- 
ing hot  before  being  consumed.  See  COMBUSTION  ;  HEAT; 
CARBON. 

Flange-smoother. — A  moulder's  tool,  curved  to  fit 
the  flanges  of  pipes,  etc.,  and  smooth  the  edge.  See 
SLICKER. 


Flasks.  169  Flat-head  Nails. 

Flasks. — The  iron  or  wooden  moulding-boxes  in  which 
sand  matrices  or  moulds  are  formed  for  the  production  of 
castings. 

When  a  mould  is  formed  in  the  floor,  only  one  flask, 
cope,  or  top  part  is  needed  to  cover  with,  consisting  of 
frame  and  bars  ;  this  may  be  cast  in  one  piece,  or  it  may 
be  made  up  of  sides,  ends,  and  bars,  all  separate  ;  in  which 
case  the  ends  and  bars  must  be  bolted  or  wedged  in  their 
respective  places. 

In  such  a  cope,  stops  for  guiding-stakes,  trunnions  for 
turning  over  by,  and  handles  or  ring-bolts  for  lifting  with, 
are  all  that  is  needed  for  the  complete  flask.  Lugs  and 
pins  added  to  such  a  flask  would  convert  it  into  a  cope,  only 
requiring  a  nowel,  or  bottom  part,  to  complete  a  set,  being 
then  called  a  pair  of  flasks.  Intermediate  cheeks  make  it 
a  set  of  flasks,  three-part,  four-part,  etc.,  according  to  the 
number  of  cheeks  interposed  betwixt  cope  and  nowel. 

By  fitting  all  such  flasks  to  standard  templets  they 
become  interchangeable,  making  it  a  simple  matter  to  fit 
any  kind  of  job  when  the  cheeks  are  made  of  various 
depths. 

The  business  of  making  small  flasks  for  brass-moulders 
is  now  a  special  one,  and  the  dealers  in  foundry  supplies 
can  furnish  them  with  pouring-holes  in  any  position 
desired.  They  are  also  drilled  with  standard  templets, 
faces  planed,  pins  turned  true  and  bolted  to  the  lugs  with 
nuts.  Being  interchangeable,  they  are  readily  replaced 
when  necessary.  See  BAR  ;  FLOOR-MOULDING  ;  STAKES  ; 
COPE  ;  TRUNNION  ;  RING-BOLT  ;  LUGS  ;  PINS  ;  NOWEL  ; 
CHEEK. 

Flat-head  Nails. — Nails  of  malleable  cast  iron  with 
extra-large  heads,  and  from  1J  to  6  inches  long,  suitable 
for  chaplets.  They  are  also  useful  in  a  foundry  for  many 
other  purposes.  See  CHAPLET. 


Flint.  170  Flour. 

Flint. — Flint  is  a  compact  homogeneous  substance  of 
a  steel-gray  color,,  sometimes  brown  or  black.  In  composi- 
tion it  consists  of  almost  pure  silica,  with  traces  of  iron, 
lime,  and  alumina.  From  the  earliest  times  flint  has  been 
employed  as  a  fire-producer,  especially  with  a  steel  imple- 
ment in  the  yet  familiar  form  of  u  flint  and  steel."  Flint 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  fine  earthenware,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  reduced  to  powder  after  it  has  been 
calcined  and  thrown  into  cold  water.  See  QUARTZ. 

Floor-moulding  is  moulding  an  object  on  the  floor 
by  the  process  of  "  bedding  in";  or  possibly  on  the  floor  in 
flasks,  as  distinguished  from  moulding  on  the  bench.  The 
former  method  ia  floor-moulding,  the  latter  bench-moulding. 
See  BEDDING  IN;  ROLLING  OVER;  BENCH-MOULDER. 

Flour. — A  name  given  in  a  general  way  to  all  the  finer 
descriptions  of  pulverized  grain  or  peas,  which  when  unfit 
for  food  finds  its  way  into  the  foundry,  to  be  there  employed 
for  mixing  with  sands,  blackings,  and  facings  in  order  to 
impart  artificial  strength  to  those  substances  by  binding 
the  particles  together  with  the  gluten  it  contains.  The 
gluten  of  wheat-flour  is  extremely  tenacious  and  elastic; 
the  value  of  flour  as  a  toughener  of  sand  depends  upon  this 
substance,  which,  when  dried,  has  a  birdlime  or  glue-like 
aspect  which  imparts  a  fibrous,  tough,  and  elastic  quality 
to  sands  which  would  otherwise  be  lacking  in  these  im- 
portant essentials.  This,  of  course,  admits  the  use  of  sands 
absolutely  free  from  alumina,  being  by  this  artificial  stif- 
fening made  to  perform  duties  that  would  be  possible  only 
with  sands  containing  alumina  in  considerable  proportions. 
Alumina  hardens  in  the  core  when  cast,  and  is  difficult  to 
remove;  gluten  burns  away,  leaving  the  sand  free.  See 
CORE-SAND;  CORE-COMPOUND;  MOLASSES;  GLUE;  GLUTEN; 
STARCH. 


Flow-off  Gates.  171  Fluor  spar  Flus. 

Flow-off  Gates.— See  CUT-OFF. 

Fluid. — A  body  whose  parts  yield  to  the  slightest  force 
when  impressed,  and  by  yielding  are  easily  moved  against 
each  other.  Fluids  may  be  divided  into  elastic  and  non- 
elastic.  Elastic  fluids  are  those  which  may  be  compressed 
into  a  very  small  compass,  but  resume  their  former  dimen- 
sions on  removing  the  compressing  force.  These  are  dis- 
tinguished as  airs  or  gases.  Non-elastic  fluids  are  those 
which  occupy  the  same  bulk  under  all  pressures,  or,  if 
compressible,  it  is  only  in  a  slight  degree — as  water,  oils, 
etc.  These  are  denominated  liquids,  except  in  the  case 
of  metals  when  melted.  The  physical  nature,  laws,  and 
effects  of  non-elastic  fluids  at  rest  constitute  the  science 
of  hydrostatics,  and  when  in  motion,  of  the  science  of 
hydraulics;  those  that  relate  to  elastic  fluids  appertain  to 
pneumatics.  See  SOLID. 

Fluid  Alloy. — If  sodium  4,  potassium  2£,  be  mixed 
together,  an  alloy  having  the  appearance  and  consistency 
of  mercury  will  result,  which  remains  liquid  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperatures  like  that  metal.  See  MERCURY  ;  ALLOY  ; 
SODIUM. 

Fluor-spar  Flux. — Fluor-spar  or  calcium  fluoride  is 
a  brittle,  transparent  to  sub-translucent  mineral  with  a 
perfect  octahedral  cleavage,  a  vitreous,  sometimes  splen- 
dent lustre,  and  specific  gravity  of  3.12.  It  decrepitates, 
tinges  the  flame  dull  red,  and  fuses  into  an  enamel  before 
the  blowpipe.  Fluor-spar  is  used  for  the  production  of 
hydrofluoric  acid  in  etching  on  seals  and  glass,  and  it  is 
extensively  used  in  the  smelting  of  lead  and  copper  as  a 
flux.  It  is  found  in  metalliferous  veins,  also  in  granite, 
slate,  limestone,  etc. 

A  very  small  quantity  of  fluor-spar  in  the  cupola  makes 


Flu*.  1?2  Foil  onboard. 

the  slag  more  thinly  liquid  and  poorer  in  iron  than  does 
limestone.  It  saves  labor,  preserves  the  cupola,  and  keeps 
it  clean.  To  some  extent  fuel  is  saved  by  a  judicious  use 
of  this  flux,  and  at  the  same  time  it  facilitates  the  sepa- 
ration of  phosphorus  and  sulphur  from  the  iron.  While 
limestone  is  to  some  extent  a  dephosphorizing  agent  and 
active  flux,  and  is  cheap  also,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it 
is  also  dirty  and  difficult  to  get  along  with  in  the  cupola. 
For  a  heat  of  five  tons,  ten  pounds  of  fluor-spar  to  the  ton 
would  be  sufficient;  for  ten  tons,  fifteen  pounds  to  the  ton; 
and  for  twenty-five  tons,  twenty  pounds  to  the  ton.  When 
dirty  iron  is  being  melted  and  aided  by  this  flux,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  employ  a  slag-hole  to  allow  the  con- 
taminating accumulations  to  run  off.  See  FLUX;  CUPOLA; 
CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Flux  is  a  general  term  given  to  the  substances  em- 
ployed in  the  arts  which  cause  or  facilitate  the  reduction 
of  a  metallic  ore  and  the  fusion  of  the  metal.  White  flux 
is  an  intimate  mixture  of  10  parts  dry  carbonate  of  soda 
and  13  parts  dry  carbonate  of  potash,  and  is  used  for  with- 
drawing the  silica  or  combined  sand  from  mineral  bodies. 

Black  flux  is  prepared  by  heating  in  close  vessels  ordi- 
nary cream  of  tartar,  with  an  intimate  mixture  of  finely 
divided  charcoal,  by  which  means  the  carbonate  of  potash 
is  obtained. 

Limestone  is  employed  as  the  flux  in  the  smelting  of 
iron  ore.  Fluor-spar,  borax,  protoxide  of  lead,  are  also 
fluxes.  See  ALLOY  ;  SOLDER  ;  CAST  IRON  ;  FLUOR-SPAR 
FLUX;  SLAG. 

Follow-board. — A  turn-over  board  on  which  to  ram 
the  nowel.  When  the  pattern  has  a  flat  face  a  plain,  true 
board  suffices;  but  should  there  be  any  deviation  from  a 
plain  surface,  the  board  is  shaped  to  fit,  so  that  the  pattern 


Fonderie  a  Calabasse.  173  Fontaincmoreau's  Bronzes. 

may  rest  firmly  at  every  part  and  not  be  injured  by  the 
pressure  exerted  when  the  ramming  takes  place. 

The  value  of  these  boards  is  enhanced  by  forming  in  or 
on  the  board  whatever  projections  or  depressions  are  need- 
ed to  make  a  completed  parting  when  it  has  been  turned 
over,  leaving  little  or  nothing  to  do  but  lay  on  the  parting- 
sand  and  proceed  to  ram  the  cope.  See  ROLLING  OVER; 
MATCH-PART;  MATCH-PLATE. 

Fonderie  a  Calabasse.  —  A  small  Belgic  iron- 
foundry  for  the  production  of  light  castings  at  short 
notice.  About  four  500-pound  heats  may  be  taken  daily 
from  a  furnace  very  similar  in  appearance  to  an  ordinary 
ladle,  with  trunnions  that  rest  upon  standards,  and  fur- 
nished with  handles  for  turning.  The  ladle  is  placed  un- 
der a  hood  against  the  wall,  and,  when  it  is  desired  to 
melt,  it  is  lined  with  loam  and  surmounted  with  a  sheet- 
iron  extension,  also  lined  and  provided  with  a  hole  at  its 
lower  edge  for  introducing  the  blast-pipe.  A  hand-fan, 
equal  to  1000  revolutions  per  minute,  enables  them  to  ob- 
tain very  hot  metal.  When  the  fuel,  which  fills  both  ladle 
and  extension,  has  been  brought  to  a  glowing  heat  by  a 
soft  blast,  the  metal  is  charged,  and  the  full  force  applied 
until  all  is  melted,  when  the  extension  is  lifted  off,  slag 
and  cinder  removed,  and  the  metal  is  ready  for  the  moulds. 
The  percentage  of  fuel  is  high,  but  the  convenience  is 
great,  and  the  simplicity  of  the  whole  apparatus  furnishes 
a  good  opportunity  for  those  with  small  capital,  or  for  spe- 
cial purposes  at  any  foundry.  See  CUPOLA. 

Fontainemoreau's  Bronzes.  —  Zinc  predomi- 
nates in  these  bronzes,  with  copper,  cast  iron,  and  lead 
in  varying  proportions,  according  to  the  quality  desired. 
It  is  an  excellent  alloy  for  casting  into  metal  moulds,  the 
metal  being  rendered  more  homogeneous  by  that  mode  of 


Forge-cinder.  174  Foundation  plate. 

casting.  The  crystalline  nature  of  the  zinc  is  changed  by 
the  addition  of  these  alloys,  being  hard  and  close-grained, 
like  steel,  although  it  yields  to  the  file  better  than  either 
copper  or  zinc.  The  proportions  of  those  which  have  been 
found  best  for  general  use  are  as  follows  : 

Cast  Iron. 


Zinc. 
90 

Copper.        Lead. 
8                 1 

91 

8 

1 

92 

8 

92 

7 

97 

3 

97 
99 

2} 
1 

99} 

See  BRONZE;  ALLOY;  COPPER; 

ZINC. 

Forge-cinder.— See  MILL-CINDER. 
Fork. — See  COKE-FORK. 

Former. — A  strickle  or  templet,  sometimes  termed  a 
sweep  and  a  strike,  with  which  to  form  a  mould  or  core  by 
drawing  it  laterally,  along  a  guideway,  the  outlines  of  which 
correspond  to  the  shape  of  the  object  to  be  moulded; 
the  former  itself  determining  its  vertical  height  and  con- 
formation. The  semicircular  board  which  is  travelled 
along  the  edge  of  a  pipe-core  plate  to  make  a  half -core  is 
a  former.  See  LOAM-PATTERNS;  STRICKLE. 

Foundation -plate.  —  The  bottom  or  base  plate 
which  carries  the  whole  mould,  and  to  which  all  other 
parts  of  the  mould  are  made  secure;  for  which  reason  it  is 
important  to  make  them  of  sufficient  strength  for  the  pur- 
pose. For  loam-work  they  should  be  made  to  correspond 


Founding.  175  Freezing. 

with  the  outer  boundary  of  bricKwork  surrounding  the 
casting,  and  all  connections,  as  lugs,  staples,  bolt-holes, 
etc.,  must  necessarily  stand  beyond  that  limit.  See  LOAM- 
WORK;  PLATE. 

Founding  is  the  art  of  forming  in  loam,  or  sand,  a 
mould  of  any  given  design,  which  is  subsequently  filled  with 
molten  metal  and  allowed  to  solidify,  the  resultant  casting 
being  a  copy  in  metal  of  the  design  or  model  furnished. 
The  place  where  these  operations  are  performed  is  called  a 
foundry.  See  FOUNDRY. 

Foundry. — Foundries  are  distinguished  by  either  the 
metals  employed  or  the  class  of  castings  made,  as  iron, 
steel,  brass,  statue,  type,  bell  foundries,  etc. ;  casting  the 
finer  metals,  as  gold,  silver,  and  the  infinite  number  of 
alloys  of  these  and  other  metals,  being  necessarily  conducted 
on  a  smaller  scale.  See  FOUNDING. 

Fountain-runner  is  a  running-gate  supplied  from 
a  source  below  the  point  at  which  the  metal  enters  the 
mould,  and  may  be  formed  by  either  connecting  a  vertical 
runner  from  the  casting  down  to  a  horizontal  one  below, 
or  by  a  tapered  cylindrical  half-ring,  having  one  end 
touching  the  casting  and  the  other  in  proximity  to  the 
main  runner  at  the  joint.  It  is  then  termed  a  horn-gate. 
Such  runners  are  serviceable  when  it  is  desired  to  fill  a 
mould  easily,  and  with  as  little  friction  as  possible.  See 
GATE;  RUNNER. 

Free  Sand  is  sand  which,  owing  to  its  freedom  from 
alumina,  is  without  the  power  of  cohesiveness,  as  stone- 
sand,  beach-sand,  river-sand,  etc.  See  FACING-SAND  ;  CORE- 
SAND;  FLOUR. 

Freezing. — A  technical  term  for  the  particular  state 


Front-plate.  176  Furnace. 

of  molten  metal  when  it  is  losing  its  fluidity,  or  changing 
from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state.  See  CONGEAL;  SET- 
TING. 

Front-plate. — A  cast-iron  plate  to  which  chest,  port, 
and  exhaust  cores  are  secured  sometimes,  when  a  cylinder 
on  which  the  steam-chest  is  to  be  cast  is  made  in  loam. 
Also  a  plate  to  cover  the  breast  of  a  cupola  when  the  hole 
is  made  large  enough  for  drawing  the  cinders  and  slag 
when  done  melting,  as  must  be  the  case  with  all  cupolas 
having  solid  bottoms.  See  CUPOLA;  BREAST;  SPOUT. 

Fuel. — Fuel  is  a  term  of  general  application  to  all  com- 
bustibles employed  for  producing  heat.  The  two  element- 
ary bodies  which  produce  the  heating  power  of  fuels,  both 
natural  and  artificial,  are  hydrogen  and  carbon  ;  and  as 
there  is  little  or  none  of  the  former  element  contained  in 
anthracite,  peat  charcoal,  wood  charcoal,  or  coke,  we  may 
therefore  regard  these  as  carbonaceous  fuels.  But  wood, 
peat,  and  most  varieties  of  coal  contain  hydrogen  as  well  as 
carbon,  and  in  their  combustion  these  two  substances 
combine  to  produce  volatile  and  combustible  hydrocarbons, 
which  are  volatilized  previous  to  being  consumed;  while  a 
purely  carbonaceous  fuel  evolves  no  volatile  matter  until 
combustion  has  been  effected.  See  COMBUSTION;  COAL; 
COKE;  PETROLEUM;  PRESSED  FUEL;  LIQUID  FUEL. 

Furnace. — A  suitably  provided  chamber  where  fire  is 
produced  by  the  use  of  fuel,  as  for  melting  metals,  smelting 
ores,  etc.,  the  former  being  a  cupola,  the  latter  a  smelting 
furnace.  When  the  fire  receives  no  other  support  than  a 
natural  draught,  it  is  termed  a  wind  or  air  furnace ;  when  a 
forcible  current  of  air  is  injected  by  means  of  a  fan,  blower, 
or  engine,  it  is  a  blast-furnace;  and  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace when  the  flame  in  passing  through  towards  the  chim- 


Fusibility.  177  Fusible  Alloys. 

ney  is  thrown  down  by  a  low  arched  roof  upon  the  materials 
to  be  operated  upon.  See  CUPOLA;  REVERBERATORY  FUR- 
NACE; BLAST-FURNACE;  BRASS-FURNACE;  also  many  other 
furnaces,  in  their  respective  order. 

Fusibility. — Except  in  a  few  instances,  all  solids 
which  can  bear  a  high  temperature  without  suffering  a 
chemical  change  may  be  melted.  Even  carbon  has  been 
partially  fused  before  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe.  Most 
solids  when  heated  to  fusing-point  change  at  once  into  per- 
fect liquids;  whilst  otners,  such  as  platinum,  iron,  glass, 
etc.,  pass  through  an  intermediate  pasty  condition  before 
they  are  perfectly  fluid,  making  it  difficult  to  determine 
the  exact  fusing-point.  See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

Fusible  Alloys.— Fusible  alloys  are  composed  prin- 
cipally of  bismuth,  tin,  and  lead,  and  the  proportions  in 
which  they  are  alloyed  determine  the  temperature  at  which 
they  will  melt.  An  alloy  of  bismuth  8,  lead  5,  tin  3,  when 
fused  together,  melts  at  212°  F.;  one  of  bismuth  2,  lead  5, 
tin  3,  like  the  other,  will  melt  in  boiling  water,  or  212°  F. ; 
and  one  of  lead  3,  tin  2,  bismuth  5,  melts  at  197°  F. 

Wood's  patent  fusible  metal,  cadmium  3,  tin  4,  lead  8, 
bismuth  15,  melts  at  150°  F.  Other  fusible  alloys  which 
bear  a  particular  name  will  be  found  in  their  places. 

As  all  fusible  metals,  including  lead,  tin,  zinc,  antimony, 
bismuth,  etc.,  and  their  alloys,  melt  at  a  much  lower  tem- 
perature than  iron,  ladles  or  pots  of  that  substance  may 
be  used  for  melting  them  in  without  any  intervening  lining. 
See  BISMUTH  ;  TIN;  LEAD  ;  ANTIMONY;  CADMIUM  ;  AL- 
LOYS. 


Gagger.  178  Gannister. 


G. 

Gagger. — A  turned  piece  of  rod  iron  for  binding  the 
surface  sand  firmly  to  the  cope.  If  the  surface  below  the 
joint  extends  but  a  little  way,  a  three-inch  turn  at  one  end 
is  sufficient ;  the  long  end  resting  against  the  bar  is  pressed 
firmly  thereto  by  the  rammed  sand,  and  the  sand  below  the 
bars  is  sustained  by  this  means ;  but  if  the  lift  is  deep,  the 
other  end  of  the  gagger  must  be  turned  at  right  angles 
also,  one  inch  being  enough  in  this  case,  the  object  being 
to  hang  the  gagger  on  the  flask-bar,  at  the  same  time  allow- 
ing it  to  rest  upon  a  slight  thickness  of  soft  sand  at  the 
bottom.  By  this  means  it  becomes  impossible  for  the 
hanging  sand  to  pull  the  gagger  out. 

The  former  is  termed  a  plain,  and  the  latter  a  "hooked 
gagger.  See  BAR  ;  FLASKS. 

Galvanized  Iron  is  made  by  coating  clean  iron  with 
melted  zinc.  The  iron  is  first  subjected  to  a  thorough  cleans- 
ing in  pickle  containing  1  per  cent  of  sulphuric  acid,  after 
which  it  is  scoured  well  in  clean  water  and  then  dipped  in  a 
bath  of  melted  zinc,  the  surface  of  which  is  covered  with  sal- 
ammoniac  in  order  to  dissolve  the  oxide  which  gathers  on 
the  surface  of  the  molten  zinc.  The  best  quality  is  made 
by  first  depositing  a  thin  film  of  tin  upon  the  iron  by  gal- 
vanic action.  See  ZINC-COATING  ;  TINNING;  PICKLE. 

Gannister. — A  highly  refractory  siliceous  rock,  used 
very  extensively  in  the  several  processes  connected  with  the 
manufacture  of  steel  and  in  the  production  of  steel  cast- 
ings, but  especially  as  a  lining  for  the  Bessemer  converters. 
Ground  quartz,  sand,  and  fire-clay  are  mixed  with  this  sub- 
stance in  varying  proportions;  but  the  silica,  about  90  per 
cent,  is  cemented  to  some  extent  by  the  argillaceous  matter 
it  contains,  making  it  in  some  instances  sufficiently  cohesive 


Gas.  179  Gas  blast  Furnace. 

for  ramming  around  a  plug,  and  thus  forming  a  solid  lining 
in  converters  and  steel-melting  furnaces  without  any  ad- 
mixture of  alumina,  etc.,  in  which  case  the  shrinkage  is 
materially  reduced  and  the  original  shape  retained  under 
very  intense  heat.  See  CONVERTER  ;  REFRACTORY  MA- 
TERIALS. 

Gas. — A  name  given  to  all  permanently  elastic  fluids 
and  airs.  Gases  have  no  cohesion,  in  consequence  of  which, 
their  particles  tend  to  recede  from  each  other  and  would 
expand  into  space — so  far  as  is  known — if  they  were  not 
restrained  by  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  atmosphere  upon 
the  earth's  surface.  In  gas,  as  in  liquid,  the  particles  are 
in  a  condition  of  equilibrium, — witli  this  difference,  that  in 
a  liquid  the  equilibrium  exists  between  the  attractive  and 
repulsive  forces  in  the  liquid  itself,  but  in  the  gas  between 
the  excess  of  the  repulsive  forces  in  the  body  and  an  ex- 
ternal pressure.  Gases  are  therefore  fluids  in  consequence 
of  this  condition  of  equilibrium  which  endows  the  particles 
with  perfect  freedom  of  motion.  Gases  are  also  compressi- 
ble and  elastic.  The  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  conditions 
of  bodies  depend  upon  temperature  and  pressure  :  for 
instance,  mercury  becomes  solid  at  40°  below  zero  F.  ; 
from  that  temperature  to  662°  F.  it  is  a  liquid,  and  a  gas 
when  the  temperature  exceeds  that.  If  sufficiently  cooled 
and  pressed  all  gases  would  probably  become  liquids,  as 
many  of  them  which  are  permanent  at  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric pressure  and  temperature  become  liquids  on  increas- 
ing the  pressure  and  diminishing  the  temperature,  and 
some  even  solidify  when  cooled  sufficiently.  But  some 
gases,  such  as  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbonic  oxide, 
and  nitrous  oxide,  cannot  be  liquefied.  See  AIR;  THER- 
MOMETER; FLUID. 

Gas-blast   Furnace.— The   only   prerequisite    de- 


Gas-blast  Furnace.  180  Gas-blast  Furnace. 

manded  for  the  gas-blast  furnace,  manufactured  by  the 
American  Gas  Furnace  Company,  is  a  positive  air-pressure. 
This  obtained,  it  will  confer  an  even  and  controllable  tem- 
perature, more  even  distribution  of  heat  in  a  given  space, 
greater  speed  of  operation,  saving  of  space,  greater  con- 
venience, and  a  substantial  reduction  in  the  cost  of  fuel 
over  all  other  methods.  Melting-furnace  No.  5,  which  con- 
sumes 200  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  is  described  as  follows  : 

This  furnace  is  used  for  melting  metals  in  black-lead 
crucibles,  Nos.  15  to  20.  They  are  in  use  for  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  brass,  as  also  for  making  tests  and  smaller 
melts  of  iron,  steel,  glass,  etc.  The  linings  are  heavy  and 
durable,  and  firmly  bound  by  iron  bands  drawn  together  by 
clamps.  Every  part  of  the  furnace  is  interchangeable,  and 
easily  replaced. 

The  combustion  chamber  consists  of  the  bottom  and  the 
cylinder,  both  firmly  secured  to  the  distributing -ring. 
The  burners  penetrate  the  "  bottom  "  lining,  and  are  easily 
detached  and  replaced  if  necessary.  The  bottom  is  held 
in  position  by  the  iron  platform,  which  is  easily  dropped 
down  to  replace  the  lining.  The  cylinder  is  secured  to  the 
distributing-ring  by  hinged  bolts.  The  cover  is  hinged  to 
the  shaft,  so  as  to  lift  clear  of  the  furnace  top  when  swung  to 
either  side.  The  "feed-hole"  in  cover  is  sufficiently  large 
to  give  free  access  to  the  crucible  without  removing  the 
cover,  thus  confining  the  heat  while  feeding  the  crucible. 
The  small  cover  closes  the  feed-hole. 

The  crucible  stands  upon  a  conical  fire-brick  support, 
which  is  easily  repaired.  A  channel  through  the  bottom 
of  the  chamber  affords  an  outlet  for  the  products  of 
combustion,  and  in  case  of  accident  the  metal  runs  out 
of  it  into  a  drip-pan.  By  means  of  outlets  for  the  prod- 
ucts of  combustion,  at  both  the  bottom  and  top  of  the 
furnace,  the  greater  heat  can  (in  a  measure)  be  made  to 
act  upon  either  the  bottom  or  top  of  crucible.  When  the 


Gas-house  Coke.  181  Gate. 

vent  on  top  is  tightly  closed,  the  greatest  heat  will  be  below, 
while  the  partial  opening  of  the  cover  will  draw  it  upwards. 

The  air-supply  pipe  is  laid  close  to  the  floor,  or  comes  up 
to  furnace  from  under  the  floor  when  practicable.  This  is 
a  precaution  against  the  intermixture  of  gas  and  air  in  the 
blast-pipe,  when  the  blower  is  accidentally  stopped. 

The  gas  supply  required  is  the  size  of  "  Union  "  G.  The 
consumption  of  gas  varies  according  to  quality  of  gas  and 
degrees  of  heat  required.  Taking  ordinary  city  gas  as  a 
criterion,  the  No.  5  furnace  will  require  from  200  to  250 
feet  of  gas  per  hour  and  melt  40  Ibs.  pure  copper  in  thirty 
minutes.  See  BRASS-FURNACE  ;  PORTABLE  FURNACES. 

Gas-house  Coke. — This  class  of  coke  is  invariably 
unfit  for  cupola  purposes,  because  it  has  not  sufficient  co- 
hesiveness  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  charges  above,  and 
therefore  crumbles,  allowing  much  of  the  combustion  to 
take  place  before  it  reaches  the  melting-point  of  the  cupola, 
at  which  point  it  is  always  desirable  to  have  the  fuel  com- 
pact and  in  good  form  to  meet  the  full  force  of  the  blast. 
See  COKE  ;  COMBUSTION. 

Gas-pipe  Vents  are  a  safe  and  simple  means  of 
leading  away  the  gases  from  vents  where  there  is  any  possi- 
bility of  molten  metal  forcing  its  way  therein.  If  iron 
block-prints  are  used  on  the  cores,  as  in  steamway  cores  of 
cylinders,  the  ends  may  be  threaded  to  screw  into  vent- 
holes  that  have  been  previously  tapped  in  the  iron  print  ; 
if  the  print  is  sand,  then  taper  the  pipe  about  one  inch, 
so  that  it  may  enter  snugly.  Venting  that  ordinarily 
would  be  intricate  and  untrustworthy  is  by  this  means 
made  absolutely  sure.  See  VENTING. 

Gate. — That  part  of  a  system  of  runners  which  is  in 
direct  contact  with  the  casting.  In  a  plain  mould,  con- 


Oate-pin.  182  Gathering  Metal. 

sisting  of  a  cope  and  nowel,  containing  two  or  more  cast- 
ings which  must  be  filled  at  one  operation  and  without  a 
runner-basin,  the  metal  would  enter  from  the  ladle  by 
the  sprue  into  and  down  the  down-gate  into  the  main 
runner,  and  from  thence  into  the  castings  through  ingates 
or  sprays  connecting  with  the  main  runner.  See  BASIN; 
DOWN-GATE;  RUNNER;  SKIM-GATE. 

Gate -pin. — An  upright  runner  (round,  square,  or 
flat)  which  i&  rammed  up  vertically  in  the  cope,  and  forms 
the  connection  betwixt  the  orifice  for  pouring  into,  and  the 
system  of  gates  below.  The  gate-pin  is  not  unfrequently 
termed  a  runner-stick.  See  DOWN-GATE;  GATE. 

G-ate-rake. — A  strong,  four-pronged  steel  fork  for 
lifting  the  gates  and  medium  heavy  scrap  out  of  the  sand 
in  the  scrap-pile.  The  prongs  are  wide  apart  to  allow  all 
sand  to  fall  through,  and  for  this  reason  are  preferable  to 
an  ordinary  shovel  for  such  use. 

Gate-spool.  —  An  inverted  cone,  usually  made  of 
wood,  and  turned  smooth,  with  a  handle  projecting  from 
its  base.  It  is  used  for  pressing  back  the  sand  and  making 
smooth  the  upper  edges  of  a  sprue-runner,  forming  a  fun- 
nel-shaped and  cleanly  formed  entrance  for  the  metal.  A 
runner  manipulated  thus  is  called  a  sprue.  See  GATE. 

Gathering  Metal  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the 
collecting  of  a  large  quantity  of  metal  for  the  purpose  of 
pouring  a  heavy  casting.  If  three  or  four  ladles  are  used 
for  casting  a  piece  20  tons,  the  metal  is  said  to  be  gathered 
in  that  number  of  vessels.  If  a  darn  is  constructed  in 
which  to  run  from  cupolas,  pour  from  ladles,  or  both  means 
combined,  all  the  metal  required :  it  is  then  gathered  in 
the  dam.  It  is  common  in  some  places  to  supplement  the 
regular  melting  in  the  air  or  reverberatory  furnace  by  si- 


Gauge. 


183  Geared  Ladle. 


multaneous  melting  in  the  cupola,  transferring  the  metal 
from  the  cupola  to  the  bed  of  the  air-furnace  as  fast  as  it 
melts.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  an  inclined 
runner  or  spout  placed  so  that  the  metal  will  enter  the  air- 
furnace  at  the  side  and  directly  over  the  reservoir.  In  the 
latter  instance  the  metal  is  gathered  into  the  air-furnace, 
which,  if  suitably  constructed,  is  assuredly  the  very  best 
arrangement  for  collecting  metal  in  large  quantities,  as  by 
this  means  the  metal  is  maintained  at  a  suitable  tempera- 
ture and  is  thoroughly  mixed — something  which  cannot 
be  satisfactorily  done  by  either  of  the  above  described 
methods.  See  DAM. 

Gauge,  or  Gage,  is  an  instrument  for  measuring 
with.  It  may  be  adjustable,  like  the  caliper,  or  a  fixed 
and  standard  measure,  as  a  gauge-stick  for  loam-work,  and 
may  be  employed  for  testing  inside  or  outside  surfaces. 

Also,  an  instrument  for  measuring  any  special  force  or 
dimension,  as  a  pressure  or  blast  gauge  for  cupolas  and 
blast-furnaces.  See  CALIPER  ;  BLAST-GAUGE  ;  PRESSURE- 
GAUGE;  GAUGE-STICK. 

Gauge-stick. — A  fixed  measure  employed  by  a  loam- 
moulder.  One  edge  is  straight;  its  full  length  represents 
outside  diameter,  and  notches  indicate  the  core's  diameter. 
A  semicircle,  cut  midway  along  the  straight  edge  to  fit  the 
spindle,  enables  the  moulder  to  set  his  sweep-boards,  and 
test  the  accuracy  of  his  work  entirely  independent  of  his 
rule.  It  is  made  handier  by  reducing  its  bulk  from  the 
middle  to  the  extremities  on  the  back  edge.  See  GAUGE. 

Geared  Ladle.  —  A  pouring  ladle  provided  with 
mechanism  for  tipping,  invented  by  James  Nasmyth, 
England.  Makers  of  geared  ladles,  now  very  numerous, 
mount  them  with  every  conceivable  variety  of  suitable 
gearing,  from  the  simple  wheel  and  pinion,  spur  or  worm, 


Gems,  Imitation.  184  German-silver. 

to  the  more  elaborate  ones  that  are  double-geared,  or 
with  mitre-wheels  in  addition  to  the  worm-gearing.  See 
LADLE. 

Gems,  Imitation.— See  PASTE  GEMS. 

German-silver. — An  alloy  deriving  its  name  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  being  first  made  at  Hildesheim, 
Germany.  It  is  a  useful  silver-like  alloy,  composed  gen- 
erally of  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc.  It  resembles  the 
Tutenag  of  the  Chinese,  and  is  used  principally  for  table 
articles,  and  in  electro-plating.  Copper  3,  zinc  1,  and 
nickel  1  is  perhaps  the  most  silver-like  alloy.  Tiers- 
argent,  an  alloy  of  German  with  real  silver,  has  come  into 
use  of  late.  It  consists  of  copper  59.0,  nickel  3.4,  zinc 
9.6,  silver  27.6. 

This  alloy  is  prepared  either  by  fusing  the  copper  and 
nickel  together  in  a  crucible  and  introducing  heated  zinc 
piece  by  piece,  or  by  finely  dividing  the  metals,  and  melt* 
ing  in  an  air-furnace  under  a  good  layer  of  charcoal.  These 
mixtures  should  be  well  stirred  to  promote  a  thorough 
solution  of  the  nickel. 

The  crystalline  structure  of  German-silver  is  destroyed 
by  heating  to  a  dull  red  and  allowing  to  cool  slowly;  this 
renders  it  more  suitable  for  working.  The  alloy  is  harder 
than  silver,  resembles  the  latter  in  color,  tarnishes  yellow 
in  the  air,  and  melts  at  a  bright  heat,  losing  its  zinc  by 
oxidation  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  German-silver  is 
exceedingly  brittle  at  a  heat  just  above  a  dull  red.  The 
ordinary  composition  for  knives  and  forks  is  copper  4, 
nickel  2,  zinc  2.  That  for  handles  for  spoons  and  forks  is 
copper  5,  nickel  2,  zinc  2.  Metal  for  rolling  is  composed 
generally  of  copper  3,  nickel  1,  zinc  1.  Candlesticks,  bells, 
spurs,  and  similar  articles  that  are  cast  are  simply  the 
German  silver  alloyed  with  from  2  to  3  per  cent  of  lead. 


German  Tutania.  185  Gilding. 

When  iron  is  added  to  the  German-silver  composition, 
it  is  best  to  use  tin-plate  iron,  which  must  be  first  melted 
along  with  part  of  the  copper.  If  from  2  to  2-|  per  cent 
of  iron  be  added  to  German-silver,  after  the  manner  as 
above  described,  the  metal  will  be  much  whiter,  but  harder 
also,  and  more  brittle. 

Park's  German-silver  contains  :  copper  91.0,  nickel  45.5, 
zinc  21.0,  iron  45.6.  An  English  patent  has:  copper  5,. 
nickel  4,  zinc,  tin,  lead,  and  antimony  1  of  each.  A  very 
malleable  German-silver  is  made  from :  copper  5,  nickel 
and  zinc  7  each.  Very  many  silver  imitations  are  described 
in  their  proper  order  throughout  this  work.  See  PACK- 
FONG  ;  PAKISTAN  WHITE  METAL  ;  GERMAN  TUTANIA  ; 
TOMBAC;  BRITANNIA  METAL;  WHITE  ALLOYS. 

German  Tutania.  —  A  beautiful  white  alloy  for 
table-ware,  etc.  Its  composition  is:  copper  1,  antimony  4, 
tin  48.  See  GEKMAN-SILYEK;  WHITE  ALLOYS. 

German  White  Copper. — Copper  88,  nickel  8.75. 
See  WHITE  ALLOYS. 

Gig.  —  A  light,  portable  centre  for  sweeping  small 
moulds  and  cores,  etc.,  in  either  loam,  sand,  composition, 
or  plaster.  See  SPINDLE. 

Gilding. — The  three  methods  of  gilding  are:  mechani- 
cal, chemical,  and  encaustic.  Picture-frames,  etc.,  are  first 
oiled  and  then  coated  with  whiting  and  glue,  after  which 
the  gold  size  is  applied  to  such  parts  as  do  not  require  bur- 
nishing ;  those  which  do  are  simply  sized  with  the  clear 
animal  size.  The  gold-leaf  is  then  applied  with  a  brush. 
Electro-gilding  is  generally  practised  for  metals.  Water- 
gilding  is  simply  applying  a  gold  amalgam  paste  to  the 
metal,  and  afterwards  applying  heat,  which  volatilizes  the 


Glote.  186 

mercury,  leaving  the  gold.  The  amalgam  is  made  by  plac- 
ing grain  or  leaf  gold  1  in  a  clean  iron  ladle,  add  mercury 
.8,  and  apply  a  gentle  heat  until  the  gold  is  dissolved,  stir 
well  with  a  clean  iron  rod,  and  run  it  on  a  clean  slab. 
'This,  when  cold,  is  the  amalgam,  ready  for  use. 

The  cleaned  metal  to  be  gilded  is  first  rubbed  over  with 
ra  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  at  once  covered  with 
:a  thin  coat  of  the  amalgam.  Heat  is  then  applied  to  vola- 
tilize the  mercury,  and  the  gold  adheres.  Cheaper  gilding 
may  be  made  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  mercury  in  the 
amalgam. 

Steel  may  be  gilded  by  dipping  the  polished  article  into 
the  ethereal  solution  of  gold  ;  on  withdrawing,  the  ether 
evaporates,  leaving  the  gold.  A  cloth  dipped  in  the  solu- 
tion and  wiped  over  the  article  answers  the  purpose.  See 
STAINS  FOR  METALS;  TINNING;  ZINC  COATING. 

Globe. — A  sphere,  a  ball.    See  SPHERE  ;  BALL. 

Glucinum. — A  metal  resembling  aluminum,  pre- 
pared after  the  same  manner.  It  is  a  rare  metal,  and  was 
discovered  by  Wohler,  1828.  See  ALUMINUM. 

Glue  is  an  impure  gelatine,  made  chiefly  from  frag- 
ments of  hides,  hoofs,  bones,  etc.  Besides  the  many  uses 
to  which  it  is  put  for  carpentry,  pattern-making,  etc.,  it  is 
capable  of  furnishing  an  excellent  means  for  imparting 
cohesiveness  to  the  several  free  sands  used  for  cores.  When 
used  as  a  glue  water  for  dampening  the  sand,  the  gelatine 
binds  the  particles  of  sand  together  with  a  jelly-like  sub- 
stance, which,  when  the  water  has  evaporated  during  the 
drying,  leaves  the  core  hard  and  brittle  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  glue  in  the  water.  By  using  the  smallest 
quantity  necessary  to  stiffen  pure  sand,  little  or  no  gas  is 
generated  by  the  heat,  thus  making  it  possible,  in  numer- 


Glue  Moulds.  187  Gold. 

ous  instances  where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  vent,  to  use 
cores  that  are  devoid  of  vents  altogether.  When  cores  of 
this  class  have  been  burnt  by  the  metal  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty in  extracting  them  from  the  castings,  the  glue  hav- 
ing burned  away,  leaving  only  the  incoherent  sand.  See 
FREE  SAND;  CORE-SAND;  FLOUR. 

Glue  Moulds.  —  Plaster  casts  of  intricate  objects, 
may  be  obtained  by  making  the  mould  of  glue.  Bunches 
of  grapes,  etc.,  for  instance,  are  taken  in  their  natural 
shape  by  covering  them  all  over  with  glue,  then  cutting 
through  the  middle  and  extracting  the  grapes,  after  which 
the  halves  are  joined  together  accurately  and  the  cavity 
filled  with  plaster.  A  perfect  cast  of  whatever  object  has 
been  treated  will  be  discovered  after  the  glue  has  been 
melted  off  with  boiling  water.  See  ELASTIC  MOULDS. 

Gluten  is  vegetable  fibrin.  If  wheat  flour  is  made 
into  a  dough  and  kneaded  on  a  sieve  under  a  stream  of 
water,  the  starch  is  carried  away,  leaving  a  gray,  tough, 
and  elastic  substance  having  the  appearance  of  animal  skin, 
and  which  when  dried  has  a  glue-like  aspect ;  hence  the 
name.  See  STARCH. 

Glycerine  is  a  colorless,  inodorous  fluid,  of  a  sweet 
taste.  The  usual  method  of  obtaining  it  on  a  small  scale. 
is  from  olive-oil.  See  OILS. 

Gold  is  a  metal  very  widely  diffused,  occurring  princi- 
pally in  grains,  but  sometimes  in  larger  pieces  weighing; 
some  pounds;  it  also  occurs  in  the  crystalline  form  in  some-, 
instances.  Its  color  is  yellow,  lustre  brilliant;  specific  grav- 
ity 19.258.  It  is  the  most  malleable  of  metals,  is  ductile- 
to  a  high  degree,  and  as  soft  as  lead  when  pure.  It  melt&; 
at  2587°  F.,  and  is  not  affected  by  air  or  water  at  any:- 
temperature. 


Gold.  188  Gold. 

The  usual  solvent  for  gold  is  aqua  regia,  a  mixture  of 
nitric  acid  1,  chlorhydric  acid  3  to  4.  The  name  of  this 
solvent  means  royal  water,  so  called  from  its  power  of  dis- 
solving the  king  of  metals. 

Gold,  like  silver,  in  a  pure  state  is  seldom  used  in  the 
arts,  except  perhaps  as  a  solder  for  vessels  of  platinum  for 
laboratory  uses.  Dentist's  and  gilding  gold  usually  con- 
tains about  6  grains  of  copper  to  one  ounce  of  gold.  Stand- 
ard gold,  copper  1,  gold  11,  has  a  density  of  17.157,  and  is 
harder  and  more  fusible  than  gold  when  pure.  The 
French  standard  is  copper  1,  gold  9. 

Carat  is  a  term  used  to  designate  one  of  the  parts  or 
units  of  a  certain  number  which  is  taken  as  the  standard 
of  pure  gold.  In  the  United  States  the  number  is  24  ; 
hence  pure  gold  is  said  to  be  24  carats  fine.  If  it  contain 
2  parts  alloy,  it  is  then  22  carats,  etc. 

Gold  is  separated  from  all  its  ores,  except  silver,  by 
amalgamation  with  mercury.  (See  AMALGAMATION.)  It  is 
obtained  from  silver  by  boiling  it  with  nitric  acid,  which 
dissolves  out  the  silver,  leaving  the  pure  gold.  See  SEPA- 
KATING  METALS. 

Most  metals  combine  with  gold,  increasing  its  hardness 
but  impairing  its  ductility. 

With  silver  29.2,  gold  70.8,  the  jeweller's  composition 
called  green  gold  is  produced.  The  maximum  degree  of 
hardness  with  silver  is  obtained  when  the  silver  constitutes 
one  third  of  the  alloy;  with  copper  it  is  one  eighteenth. 
Twenty  per  cent  of  iron  with  gold  produces  the  jeweller's 
gray  gold,  and  75  per  cent  makes  an  alloy  of  silvery  white- 
ness, hard  enough  for  cutting  instruments. 

Thirteen  hundred  miles  of  silver  wire  may  be  covered  by 
one  ounce  of  gold,  the  leaf  is  reduced  to  the  290,000th  part 
of  an  inch,  and  a  leaf  of  56  square  inches  may  be  beaten 
out  of  one  grain  of  this  metal.  See  GILDING;  ALLOY; 
TOMBAC  ;  GOLD  ALLOY. 


Gold  Alloy.  189  Grades  of  Pig-iron. 

Gold.  Alloy. — An  imitation  resembling  the  pure  metal 
in  color  and  of  about  the  same  specific  gravity  is  made  by 
melting  together  in  a  crucible,  well  covered  with  charcoal- 
dust,  copper  7,  platinum  16,  zinc  1.  Mannheim  gold,  an- 
other beautiful  imitation,  is  made  in  the  same  way  from 
copper  16,  zinc  4,  tin  1.  Gold  75,  copper  25,  and  a  little 
silver  is  a  remarkable  jewelry  composition. 

Gold-leaf.— See  GOLD. 

Gold-solder. — Take  gold  of  the  same  quality  as  the 
article  to  be  soldered,  and  add  -^  of  silver  and  -fa  of  copper. 
A  larger  proportion  of  silver  and  copper  may  be  added  for 
articles  not  so  fine.  See  SOLDERS. 

Gong-metal  is  composed  of  copper  78  to  80,  tin  20 
to  22.  After  casting,  the  metal  is  subjected  to  a  process 
of  hammering  and  annealing.  Owing  to  the  brittleness  of 
the  mixture,  great  care  and  judgment  is  required  to  beat 
it  into  the  flat  basin-shaped  gong,  which,  when  struck  with 
the  mallet,  puts  the  metal  into  such  an  extraordinary  state 
of  vibration  as  to  produce  the  piercing  sound  emitted. 
Annealing  is  obtained  by  heating  to  a  dull  red,  and  sud- 
denly immersing  in  water.  When  cold,  the  hammering  can 
be  continued  until  a  point  of  brittleness  is  reached,  when  a 
repetition  of  the  annealing  process  is  made  necessary,  and 
so  on  until  completed.  See  ALLOYS;  BRASS. 

Grades  of  Pig-iron. — Pig-iron  produced  from  the 
same  ores  differs  in  its  nature  and  quality,  and  must  be 
rated  or  graded  in  such  a  manner  as  will  indicate  the  special 
purpose  for  which  each  is  applicable.  Broadly  stated,  the 
classifications  are  commonly  understood  as  gray,  mottled, 
and  white — a  condition  discovered  by  the  fracture;  but  the 
gray  iron  i§  subjected  to  still  further  divisions,  termed  No. 


Orain-tin.  190  Graphite. 

1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  etc.,  according  as  the  fracture  indicates  the 
various  degrees  of  hardness,  commencing  at  the  softest,  No. 
1,  the  numbers  advancing  as  the  hardness  increases  up  to 
the  point  where  they  cease  to  be  suitable  for  general  foun- 
dry purposes,  and  are  classed  as  forge-irons,  being  fit  only 
for  conversion  into  malleable  iron  in  the  puddling-furnace. 
The  lack  of  fluidity  common  to  the  latter  grades  is«a  qual- 
ity which  makes  them  highly  desirable  for  the  puddling 
process,  as  in  melting  they  pass,  just  before  fusion  is  com- 
plete, into  a  pasty  mass  favorable  for  decarburization  much 
easier  and  with  less  loss  than  could  be  possible  if  the  pig- 
iron  were  gray  and  more  fluid.  See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

Grain-tin.— See  TIN. 

Granite  is  a  widely  known  igneous  rock,  composed  of 
quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica,  united  in  a  confused  crystalliza- 
tion. Feldspar  predominates,  and  quartz  is  greater  than 
mica.  It  is  so  called  because  of  its  granular  structure. 
The  decomposition  of  the  feldspar  of  some  kinds  of  granites 
produces  the  kaolin  used  for  porcelain,  and  for  many 
purposes  in .  metallurgy.  When  granite  decomposes  and 
becomes  mixed  with  organic  matter  it  makes  good  soil.  See 
KAOLIN;  MICA;  FELDSPAR;  KOCK;  EARTHS. 

Granulated  Zinc.— See  ZINC,  To  PURIFY. 
Grapes,  A  Plaster  Cast  of.— See  GLUE  MOULDS. 

Graphite. — The  nature  of  graphite,  sometimes  called 
plumbago  or  black  lead,  is  not  generally  understood.  Emi- 
nent writers  on  friction  have  declared  that  graphite  is  the 
best  natural  lubricant  known,  and  scientific  and  mechanical 
papers  have  advocated  its  use  for  many  purposes.  Incom- 
petent, if  not  unscrupulous,  parties  have  attempted  to  meet 


Graphite  in  Pig-iron.  191  Graphite  in  Pig-iron. 

the  demand  by  putting  on  the  market  graphite  productions 
that  are  totally  unfit  for  the  uses  specified. 

Graphite  is  one  of  the  forms  of  carbon.  It  is  not  affected 
by  heat  or  cold,  or  any  known  chemical.  As  it  comes  from 
the  mine,  however,  it  contains  from  50  to  80  per  cent  of 
silica,  sulphur,  and  other  impurities,  and  the  process  of 
completely  freeing  the  graphite  from  impurities  requires 
very  expensive  machinery  and  the  most  skilful  manipula- 
tion. Only  manufacturers  having  such  facilities  can  hope; 
to  produce  an  absolutely  pure  article.  The  impurities  in 
much  of  the  graphite  now  in  the  market  take  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  graphite  by  contact,  and  such  impurities  are 
sometimes  undetected  even  by  the  expert,  unless  chemical 
tests  are  employed.  This  is  especially  true  of  amorphous 
graphite,  commonly  called  black  lead,  which  is  graphite 
without  any  particular  form,  and  usually  mixed  with  clay. 

Pure  graphite,  and  even  black  lead,  is  useful  in  many 
ways  ;  but  to  be  useful  in  the  highest  degree  the  graphite 
should  be  carefully  selected  with  a  view  to  the  use  intended. 
Graphite  suitable  for  lead-pencils  is  not  the  most  suitable 
for  lubricating,  although  it  has  lubricating  qualities. 
Again,  graphite  suitable  for  stove-polish  would  not  answer 
for  crucibles,  although  it  might  be  equally  pure  and  stand 
the  heat  equally  well. 

Graphite  varies  greatly  in  its  construction  and  usefulness, 
and  the  best  results  are  only  brought  about  through  experi- 
ence, knowledge,  and  proper  mechanical  facilities.  See 
BLACK  LEAD;  FACING. 

Graphite  in  Pig-iron. — Pig-iron  contains  from  2 
to  6  per  cent  of  carbon,  some  portion  of  which  is  held  in 
chemical  combination  with  the  iron,  the  rest  being  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  mass  mechanically.  The  latter  is 
called  graphitic  carbon,  or  graphite.  This  graphite  is  seen 
as  scales,  which  may  be  detached  from  the  mass  when  the 


Gravity.  192  Green  sand  Core. 

pig-iron  is  reduced  to  powder,  and  may  also  be  found 
among  gray-iron  borings  that  are  subjected  to  a  process 
of  grinding  and  sifting.  If  gray  iron  that  has  been  melted 
in  contact  with  an  excess  of  carbon  is  allowed  to  cool 
slowly,  the  carbon  crystallizes  out  and  forms  graphite  ;  this 
is  commonly  called  Kish  in  the  foundry,  and  it  is  always 
seen  to  gather  when  the  iron  is  melted  under  conditions 
answering  to  those  described  above.  See  KISH  ;  CARBON. 

Gravity.— See  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Gray  Pig-iron  is  all  pig-iron  that  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  its  carbon  in  a  graphitic  state.  Such  irons 
may  be  distinguished  by  their  crystalline  fracture  and  dark- 
gray  color.  See  CAST  IRON. 

Green-sand  is  moulding-sand  in  a  moist  condition, 
and  suitably  mixed  to  form  moulds  in  which  the  metal  can 
be  poured  at  once,  without  subsequent  drying.  See  FACING- 
SAND  ;  DRY-SAND  MOULDING  ;  GREEN-SAND  MOULDING  ; 
DAMPNESS. 

Green-sand  Core. — The  inner  mould,  whose  out- 
side surface  has  been  fashioned  to  correspond  with  the 
desired  form  of  the  inside  of  a  casting,  and  which  has  been 
constructed  exclusively  from  materials  favorable  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue  without  the  intermediate  process  of  drying 
consequent  upon  cores  that  are  made  from  dry- sand  ma- 
terial. The  chief  requirements  in  this  mode  of  core-mak- 
ing are,  first,,  a  suitable  core-bar,  or  arbor  (see  ARBOR),  to 
carry,  the  sand  ;  second,  aitough,  strong  sand  for  the  lower 
hanging  surface,  the  upper  surface  and  the  interior  of  the 
core  "being  formed  with; -sand  as  open  as  may  be  consistent 
with  safety  ;  and  thirdly,  an  uninterrupted  passage  for  the 
vents  it  they  are  &®vm  ones  ;  but  in  large  cores  cinders  are 


Green-sand  Moulding.  193  Greiner  Patent  Cupola. 

always  preferable.      See  FACING  -  SAND  ;    GREEN  -  SAND 
MOULDING. 

Green-sand  Moulding  is  the  art  of  constructing 
moulds  capable  of  resisting  the  destructive  influence  of 
molten  metal  without  the  subsequent  drying  incident  to 
loam  and  dry-sand  moulding.  More  skill  is  required  to 
mould  similar  castings  in  green-sand  than  by  either  of  the 
other  methods,  because  the  moulds  cannot  possibly  be  made 
as  rigid  and  unyielding  ;  therefore  there  must  be  superior 
ingenuity  displayed  to  overcome  these  disadvantages. 
Every  process  connected  with  green-sand  work  must  be 
worked  with  greatest  care,  provision  for  sustaining  and 
anchoring  cores  and  portions  of  mould  must  be  made  inde- 
pendent of  the  mould  proper,  and  in  all  cases  the  efforts  of 
the  moulder  are  directed  to  a  maintenance  of  all  the  parts 
of  his  mould  in  their  exact  position  without  actual  contact, 
otherwise  the  incoherent  material  out  of  which  he  must 
necessarily  form  the  mould  will  be  shattered  and  the  mould 
destroyed.  This  is  by  no  means  the  case  in  loam  and  dry- 
sand  moulding:  the  dried  loam  or  sand  is  compact  and 
hard,  and  in  most  cases  capable  of  sustaining  its  several 
parts  without  fear  of  damage,  in  addition  to  which  the 
dried  moulds  offer  a  surface  always  freed  from  moisture 
and  gas-creating  substances,  the  eradication  of  which  in 
green-sand  moulds  must  necessarily  take  place  during  the 
process  of  filling  the  mould  with  metal.  See  DRY-SAND 
MOULDING  ;  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Grreiiier  Patent  Cupola.— This  remarkable  cupola 
is  thus  described  by  the  patentee  : 

"  The  novelty  of  the  invention  consists  in  a  judicious  ad- 
mission of  blast  into  the  upper  zones  of  a  cupola,  whereby 
the  combustible  gases  are  consumed  within  the  cupola  and 
the  heat  utilized  to  preheat  the  descending  charges,  thereby 


Greiner  Patent  Cupola.  194  Greiner  Patent  Cupola. 

effecting  a  saving  in  the  fuel  necessary  to  melt  the  iron 
when  it  reaches  the  melting  zone.  In  order  to  fully  ex- 
plain the  principle  of  its  workings,  we  will  suppose  a  cupola 
of  the  ordinary  design,  with  a  single  row  of  tuyeres  or  air 
inlets.  The  incoming  air  burns  the  coke  in  front  of  the 
tuyeres  to  carbonic-acid  gas,  a  combination  indicating  per- 
fect combustion.  As  this  gas  ascends  through  the  incan- 
descent coke  above,  most  of  it  is  converted  into  carbonic 
oxide  by  the  absorption  of  an  equivalent  of  carbon.  The 
result  of  the  combustion  is,  therefore,  a  gas  mostly  com- 
posed of  carbonic  oxide  (CO),  indicating  an  imperfect  utili- 
zation of  the  fuel,  as  One  pound  of  carbon  burned  to  car- 
bonic acid  (C03)  will  develop  14,500  heat-units ;  whereas 
the  same  amount  of  carbon  burned  to  carbonic  oxide  (CO) 
will  only  develop  4480  heat-units,  or  less  than  one  third  of 
the  heat  developed  by  perfect  combustion. 

"  To  avoid  this  loss  of  heat  additional  tuyeres  have  been 
placed  at  a  short  distance  above  the  lower  tuyeres  to  intro- 
duce air  to  consume  the  carbonic  oxide  (CO),  but  such 
arrangement  does  not  have  the  desired  effect,  because  the 
material  at  that  place  in  the  cupola  has  a  very  high  tem- 
perature, consequently  the  entering  air  also  ignites  the 
coke,  so  that  the  action  at  the  lower  tuyeres  is  simply  re- 
peated, and  carbonic  oxide  (CO)  again  formed  at  a  short 
distance  above." 

This  led  Mr.  Greiner  to  the  following  conclusions  : 

"  In  every  cupola  there  must  be  a  point  above  which  the 
descending  materials  have  not  yet  reached  the  temperature 
necessary  for  the  ignition  of  the  solid  fuel,  while  the  as- 
cending combustible  gas  is  still  warm  enough  to  ignite 
when  brought  into  contact  with  air.  It  is  clear  that  air,  if 
properly  admitted  above  that  point,  will  cause  the  combus- 
tion of  the  carbonic  oxide  (CO)  without  igniting  the  coke. 

"  But  if  all  the  air  necessary  for  the  combustion  of  the 
carbonic  oxide  (CO)  be  admitted  at  one  place  or  in  one 


Grids.  195  Grouting. 

horizontal  row  of  tuyeres,  the  heat  developed  will  very  soon 
raise  the  temperature  so  as  to  set  fire  to  the  coke,  producing 
loss  of  carbon  as  before.  Hence  the  upper  blast  must  not 
be  introduced  on  a  horizontal  plane,  but  through  a  number 
of  small  tuyeres,  arranged  (either  in  the  form  of  a  spiral  or 
otherwise)  so  as  to  embrace  the  higher  zones  of  the  cupola, 
and  must  be  regulated,  both  as  to  pressure  and  arrange- 
ment and  dimensions  of  pipes,  according  to  the  capacity  of 
each  particular  cupola. 

"  The  combustible  gases  are  thus  burned  without  heating 
the  coke  to  incandescence,  and  the  heat  thus  developed 
utilized  to  preheat  the  iron  and  the  coke,  so  that  they  reach 
the  melting  zone  at  a  higher  temperature  and  require  less 
heat  to  effect  the  melting."  See  CUPOLA  ;  COMBUSTION". 

Grids  is  the  name  sometimes  given  to  core-irons  made 
similar  to  a  grate  of  cast  iron  and  used  for  sustaining  bodies 
of  sand  which  extend  beyond  the  edge  of  a  lifting-plate,  etc., 
in  green-sand  work;  also  with  and  without  prickers  for  dry- 
sand  cores.  In  the  former  instance  they  may  be  made  to 
serve  a  good  purpose.  By  bolting  or  clamping  the  back 
edge  to  the  lifting-plate  the  extending  mould  is  as  firmly 
held  as  if  it  rested  on  the  plate  itself.  They  also  constitute 
a  method  of  tying  green-sand  drawbacks,  etc.,  far  superior 
to  tie-rods.  See  TIE-RODS;  CORE-IKON";  DRAWBACK. 

Grooved  Drums.— See  SPIRAL  DRUMS. 

Grouting. — The  process  of  pouring  a  thin  mixture  of 
kaolin  or  fire-clay  betwixt  the  cupola  shell  and  the  fire- 
bricks, as  well  as  at  the  joints  of  the  bricks,  during  the 
operation  of  lining.  By  building  the  bricks  in  as  close 
contact  with  the  shell  as  possible  and  filling  the  remaining 
spaces  with  the  grout,  the  brick  is  permanently  fixed,  and 
all  possibility  of  air  escaping  through  the  joints  of  the  shell 
obviated.  See  CUPOLA;  REPAIRING  THE  CUPOLA. 


Gudgeon.  196  Gun-metal. 

Gudgeon.  —  The  cast  or  wrought  iron  journal-piece 
inserted  in  the  ends  of  a  core-barrel,  forming  a  horizontal 
shaft  or  axle,  with  collars  for  turning  in  V's  or  semicircles, 
provided  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  trestles  which  constitutes 
a  part  of  the  core-lathe.  See  CORE-LATHE;  CORE-BARREL. 

Guides   for  Green-sand.—  See  STAKES;  FLASK; 
COTTER. 


Guides  for  Loam-work.  —  These  guides  are  of 
necessity  somewhat  temporary,  and  require  to  be  well 
preserved  during  the  time  the  mould  remains  separated, 
otherwise  it  is  difficult  to  close  each  piece  in  its  place  cor- 
rectly. If  the  Joints  are  made  by  the  spindle  and  sweep, 
let  each  outside  edge  be  struck  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
joining  surface,  extending  a  plain  face  f  inch  in  each 
direction.  By  this  means  both  edges  can  be  seen  and  felt, 
and  any  discrepancy  overcome  more  easily  than  when  one 
slides  into  the  other  by  a  shallow  taper  seating.  If  iron 
ring  or  plates  meets  loam,  then  make  the  loam  to  cor- 
respond, and  smooth  clayey  sand  over  both,  dividing  at 
the  joint,  and  marking  a  few  lines  thereon  with  a  thin 
trowel.  Should  both  joining  edges  bo  loam,  both  notches 
and  lines  may  be  made.  See  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Gum-arabic.  —  See  ARABIC-GUM. 
Gum-elastic.—  See  INDIA-RUBBER. 
Gum  Resins.—  See  KESINS. 
Gun-founding.—  See  CANNON;  ORDNANCE. 

Gun-metal.  —  A  soft  gun-metal  that  will  bear  drift- 
ing is  made  from  :  copper  16,  tin  1.  Harder,  for  heavy 
guns:  copper  9,  tin  1.  A  small  proportion  of  zinc  aids 


Gutta-percha.  197  Gypsum. 

the  alloy  to  mix  well,  and  increases  the  malleability  with- 
out materially  affecting  its  hardness.  Sterling's  gun-metal 
is  copper  50,  zinc  25,  iron  1  to  8.  Kosthorn's  is  copper 
56.33,  tin  0.49,  zinc  41.29,  iron  1.84.  See  ALLOY;  BRASS; 
BRONZE;  TIN;  COPPER. 

Gutta-percha  is  very  similar  in  many  respects  to 
caoutchouc,  being  the  dried  juice  of  the  Isonandra  gutta 
tree.  When  mixed  with  about  one  fourth  of  linseed-oil  it 
makes  a  good  substance  for  obtaining  moulds  from  undercut 
patterns.  After  obtaining  the  mixture  and  kneading  it 
into  cakes  of  suitable  thickness,  soften  the  surface  before 
the  fire  and  press  firmly  on  the  pattern,  and,  before  it  be- 
comes cold,  remove  the  mould  and  set  it  in  cold  water  at 
once,  otherwise  it  will  shrink  out  of  shape.  The  gutta- 
percha  may  be  softened  by  heat  until  it  is  possible  to  press 
it  into  the  most  intricate  recesses,  but  let  the  final  touches 
leave  the  mould  about  equal  in  thickness  all  over,  taking 
it  off  whilst  warm,  and  plunging  into  water.  See  ELASTIC 
MOULDS;  INDIA-RUBBER;  PLASTER  CASTS. 

Gypsum  is  the  sulphate  of  lime.  This  salt  is  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  forming  very  extensive  rocky 
beds.  When  pure  and  transparent  it  is  known  as  selenite, 
and  in  its  other  varieties  as  gypsum,  alabaster,  and  plaster 
of  Paris.  Powdered  gypsum  parts  with  its  water  of 
crystallization  when  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  300°. 
If  it  be  then  made  into  a  liquid  paste  with  water,  it  again 
combines  with  it,  and  at  once  commences  to  harden  and 
resume  its  stony  condition.  It  is  entirely  owing  to  this 
wonderful  property  that  it  can  be  used  for  obtaining  im- 
pressions of  objects  by  taking  casts  whilst  in  a  liquid  state. 
It  is  mixed  with  glue  and  colored  for  architectural  pur- 
poses, the  objects  cast  being  then  called  stucco-work.  See 
PLASTER  CASTS;  PLASTER  OF  PARIS;  STUCCO-WORK. 


Hammer.  198  Hand-truck. 


H, 

Hammer.  —  A  tool  consisting  of  an  iron  head  fixed 
crosswise  upon  a  handle.  The  hammers  in  common  use 
are  of  different  kinds  :  including  the  heaviest  sledge, 
wielded  by  both  hands,  with  which  a  very  heavy  blow  may 
be  given;  the  hand-hammer,  which  may  be  used  with  one 
hand  ;  and  intermediate  sizes  and  shapes  for  a  variety 
of  uses.  The  largest  hammers  are  those  used  in  the  iron 
manufactories  for  forging  purposes,  being  machines  moved 
by  steam  or  some  other  power,  the  chief  of  which  will  be 
described  under  their  respective  heads.  See  STEAM-HAM- 
MER; TILT-HAMMER. 

Hammer-pick. — A  furnace-man's  steel  tool,  having 
a  hammer  face  and  sharpened  point  at  the  respective  ends 
of  the  head.  Used  for  cutting  out  and  trimming  the  in- 
side of  the  cupola.  See  PICK-HAMMER  ;  REPAIRING  THE 
CUPOLA. 

Hand-barrow. — A  wooden  platform  provided  with 
lifting-handles  at  both  ends.  Such  wheelless  barrows  are 
extremely  useful  for  carrying  light  loads,  as  cores,  cast- 
ings, etc.,  by  two  men. 

Hand-ladle.— See  LADLES. 

Hand-screw  Clamp. — A  pair  of  jaws  regulated  by 
two  hand-screws,  used  principally  by  wood-workers,  but  a 
very  handy  contrivance  for  binding  work  in  the  foundry, 
such  as  core-boxes,  strips  of  pattern,  etc. 

Hand-truck. — A  small  vehicle  to  be  propelled  by 
one  man.  It  may  be  a  platform  with  three  or  four  wheels, 


Handwriting  Impressions.  199  Hardening  Metals. 

with  swivel  lock  on  the  front  for  turning  easily  ;  or  the 
common  warehouse  truck,  consisting  of  two  long  handles 
held  together  with  cross-ties,  terminating  with  axle  and 
wheels  and  a  purchase-plate. 

Handwriting  Impressions  on  Cast  Iron.— 

This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  carbon  ink,  which 
leaves  a  substantial  and  hard  body — one  that  will  not  be 
destroyed  with  molten  cast  iron. 

A  Boston  gentleman  discovered  the  method,  which  con- 
sists of  writing  backivards  upon  ordinary  paper  with  pre- 
pared ink,  and  from  right  to  lefty  instead  of  the  usual  way. 
The  paper  is  fastened  to  the  mould  surface  and  the  metal 
poured  over.  The  paper  burns  away  of  course,  but  the 
carbon  ink  resists  the  action  of  the  molten  iron  and  leaves 
an  indented  impression  of  the  writing  upon  it.  See  EM- 
BROIDERY IMPRESSIONS  IN  CAST  IRON*. 

Hard  Alloy. — It  is  claimed  that  if  an  alloy  is  made 
from  4  copper,  7  zinc,  and  1  tin,  it  will  resist  all  attempts 
at  turning;  but  if  petroleum  is  used  freely  the  alloy  will 
yield  at  once  to  the  tools.  See  BRASS  ;  SPECULUM  METAL. 

Hard  Brass.  —  Copper  100,  tin  10,  zinc  5.  See 
BRASS  ;  SPECULUM  METAL. 

Hardening  Metals. — The  processes  for  hardening 
or  tempering  the  several  metals  are  various.  Steel  is  won- 
derfully affected  by  heating  and  then  plunging  into  water, 
being  so  susceptible  to  this  process  that  almost  any  degree 
of  hardness  may  be  obtained,  and  it  may  again  be  made 
soft  and  malleable,  as  before,  by  reheating  and  allowing  it 
to  slowly  cool. 

To  harden  cast  iron,  use  a  liquid  made  as  follows  :  Soft 
water  10  gallons,  salt  1  peck,  oil  of  vitriol  |  pint,  saltpetre 


Hardness  of  Minerals.  200  Hard  Plaster. 

-J  pound,  prussiate  of  potash  J  pound,  cyanide  of  potash  \ 
pound.  Heat  the  cast  iron  cherry-red,  and  dip  as  usual,, 
repeating  the  process  if  wanted  harder. 

Wrought  iron  is  surface-hardened  by  heating  to  a  bright 
red,  sprinkling  with  prussiate  of  potash,  and  plunging  into 
cold  water  when  it  has  cooled  to  a  very  dull  red.  See 
METALS;  TEMPERING. 

Hardness  of  Minerals. — The  hardness  of  miner- 
als, beginning  with  the  hardest,  is  as  follows  :  Diamond  1, 
corundum  2,  sapphire  3,  topaz  4,  quartz  5,  feldspar  6, 
scapolite  7,  apatite  8,  fluor-spar  9,  calcareous  spar  10,  gyp- 
sum 11,  talc  12.  See  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Hardness  of  Precious  Stones.— See  PRECIOUS 
STONES. 

Hard  Pig-iron  is  distinguished  by  showing  at  the 
fracture  a  dull,  grayish-white  color,  flaky  in  appearance, 
with  more  or  less  mottle.  An  extreme  degree  of  hardness 
exists  when  the  fracture  shows  a  highly  crystalline  nature, 
with  long,  needle-like  crystals  radiating,  and  no  appear- 
ance of  graphite.  See  CAST  IRON  ;  GRADING  PIG-IRON  ; 
SOFT  PIG-IRON. 

Hard  Plaster  is  made  by  saturating  pieces  of  freshly 
calcined  plaster  with  water  that  holds  in  solution  12  per 
cent  of  alum.  After  thorough  saturation  the  pieces  are 
lifted  from  the  liquid,  dried,  and  calcined  at  a  red  heat; 
after  which  they  are  pulverized  and  sifted,  and  the  plaster 
is  fit  for  mixing.  This  plaster  requires  only  about  one 
half  of  the  water  used  for  the  ordinary  material,  but  is 
much  longer  in  setting.  When  set,  this  hard  plaster  is 
about  50  per  cent  stronger  than  the  common,  and  produces 
a  fine,  polished  surface.  See  PLASTER. 


Hardware.  201  Hay-rope  Twiste*. 

Hardware. — A  common  term  for  such  manufactures 
as  are  produced  from  the  useful  metals,  iron,  steel,  copper, 
zinc,  tin,  brass,  and  some  of  the  commoner  kinds  of  plated 
goods.  See  METALS;  BKASS;  BRITANNIA  METAL. 

Hay  Rope. — Hay  twisted  into  rope  to  any  desired 
thickness,  and  used  for  wrapping  core-barrels  before  the 
clay  and  loam  is  applied,  its  purpose  being  to  cover  the 
vent-holes  in  the  barrel,  and  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a 
medium  for  carrying  the  loam.  When  the  molten  metal 
covers  the  core,  the  gases  generated  in  the  sand  enter  the 
hay  rope  and  pass  into  the  barrel  through  the  vent-holes 
provided.  Straiu,  and  meadow  as  well  as  prairie  hay,  are 
also  employed  for  making  these  ropes.  See  CORE-BARBEL; 
ORDKAKCE;  HAY-ROPE  TWISTER. 

Hay-rope  Twister. — A  machine  for  spinning  hay  or 
straw  ropes.  Formerly  rope-spinning  was  a  tedious  opera- 
tion, consisting  of  a  simple  hooked  crank  which  an  assist- 
ant turned  in  his  hands,  gradually  walking  backward  as 
the  hay  was  paid  out  by  the  skilful  hands  of  the  operator, 
who  sat  behind  a  loose  pile  of  damp  hay  or  straw,  and 
fed  it  in  just  such  quantity  as  would  produce  the  thick- 
ness of  rope  required.  The  machine  hay-rope  twisters 
now  becoming  general  for  this  purpose  are  of  various 
designs.  The  following  is  a  full  description  of  a  power 
twister: 

It  is  constructed  of  the  most  approved  design,  of  the 
best  material,  and  the  workmanship  is  first-class.  The 
bearings  of  the  revolving  frame  turn  upon  stout  iron 
standards,  which  rest  on  heavy  wooden  skids,  two  inches  by 
eight  inches.  The  winding  pulley  is  propelled  backward 
and  forward  by  cog-gearing  on  a  right-and-left  screw, 
which  reverses  by  a  spring  arrangement  at  each  end  of 
same. 


Hay-rope  Twister.  202  Hay-rope  Twister. 

An  operator  feeds  hay  into  the  hollow  spindle,  which 
directs  the  rope  on  its  way  to  the  reel.  As  the  rope  is 
twisted  by  the  revolving  frame,  it  is  fed  on  the  spool  by 
the  operator  pressing  his  foot  gently  on  the  treadle,  reliev- 
ing it  as  soon  as  the  rope  is  wound,  and  spinning  and  feed- 
ing together. 

The  rope  can  be  made  tighter  or  looser  according  to  the 
tension  placed  on  it  by  the  operator,  care  being  taken  when 
the  hay  or  straw  is  weak  in  quality. 

Great  skill  is  acquired  by  practice,  and  beginners  must 
not  be  discouraged  by  breaking  the  rope  or  other  mis- 
haps. 

The  machine  should  make  about  two  hundred  revolu- 
tions per  minute  or  faster  for  small  rope,  which  varies  from 
say  one-half  inch  up  to  one  and  one-half  inches,  depending 
upon  the  body  of  material  fed  by  operator.  Each  reel  will 
contain  about  one  thousand  feet  of  rope  on  an  average,  and 
from  five  to  ten  reels  can  be  spun  in  a  day,  according  to  size 
of  rope,  which  is  a  large  produce  for  a  smart  boy. 

This  machine  must  be  belted  to  run  from  right  to  left  at 
the  feeding  end,  so  as  to  twist  the  rope  right-handed.  In 
securing  the  twister  to  the  floor,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
bolt  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  frame  to  bind  in  its 
bearings. 

The  reels  or  spools  when  full  should  be  removed  and 
sent  to  the  foundry,  where  they  are  dropped  in  a  frame  and 
unwound  directly  on  the  core-barrels.  A  sufficient  length 
of  rope  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  machine  to  begin  an- 
other reel  with,  say,  six  or  eight  feet — enough  to  fasten  to 
the  body  of  the  reel. 

Dimensions. — Extreme  length,  6  ft. ;  extreme  height,  2  ft. 
10  in.;  extreme  width,  2  ft.  6  in.;  weight,  750  Ibs.;  ship- 
ping weight,  850  Ibs. 

Adaptation. — Motion  of  reel,  rigat  to  left ;  capacity  of 
reel,  about  1000  feet  of  rope;  product,  5  to  10  reels  per 


Head.  203.  &  **  ><$\fieat. 

day,  according  to  size  of  rope  anc&^ill  of  operator  ;x  sizes 
of  rope,  ^  in.  to  1^  in. 


Head. — An  extension  added  tc  the  top  end  oTa  casting 
when  the  mould  is  poured  in  a  vertical  position  and  it  is 
desired  to  obtain  a  surface  that  is  free  from  scum  and  dirt. 
The  sullage  is  pushed  beyond  the  limits  of  the  casting, 
lodging  in  the  "  head,"  leaving  the  former  clean. 

Another  form  of  riser  is  one  into  which  the  metal  is 
forced  by  head  pressure  after  the  mould  is  full,  and  may, 
if  placed  on  the  top,  answer  as  a  dirt  receiver,  or  serve  as 
a  means  for  feeding.  See  KISER. 

Heap-sand. — The  common  sand  on  the  foundry  floor. 
When  a  moulder  is  using  a  certain  quantity  of  sand  every 
day  for  filling  a  set  number  of  flasks  with,  he  usually  col- 
lects it  in  a  heap  close  by,  and  designates  it  as  heap-sand  ; 
in  contradistinction  to  the  facing-sand  or  new-sand  em- 
ployed in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  his  pattern.  See 
FLOOR-SAND;  OLD-SAND;  FACING-SAND. 

Hearth  is  that  part  of  a  smelting-furnace  where  the 
ore  accumulates  and  is  finally  separated  from  the  impuri- 
ties which  may  be  present  in  the  ores.  It  is  situated  at  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace,  a  little  above  the  mouth  of  the 
tuyeres.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  bottoms  of  finery, 
open-hearth,  and  reverberatory  furnaces,  where  the  metal 
is  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire.  See  BLAST-FURNACE. 

Heart-trowel. — A  moulder's  tool  with  a  heart-shaped 
blade.  When,  instead  of  a  handle,  another  tool  is  forged 
at  the  opposite  end,  it  is  called  a  double-end,  and  may  be 
used  at  either  end  as  occasion  requires.  See  MOULDING- 
TOOLS. 

Heat. — We  experience  the  sensation  of  heat  when  we 


Heat.  204  Heat. 

approach  a  warm  body.  The  opposite  of  heat  is  cold, 
which  merely  implies  a  greater  or  less  deficiency  of  heat. 
The  two  kinds  of  heat,  which  are  called  free,  or  sensible, 
and  latent,  are  represented  by  fire  and  ice;  the  free,  as  in 
fire,  can  be  felt,  while  that  in  ice  is  latent  and  cannot  be 
felt.  There  is  heat  in  all  substances,  but  in  those  which 
are  called  cold  it  exists  in  an  inferior  degree.  Some  think 
that  heat  is  not  a  material  substance,  but  results  from  the 
vibrations  of  the  particles  of  bodies ;  others  believe  it  to  be 
an  exceedingly  subtle  substance,  whose  particles  repel  each 
other  and  thus  give  it  a  tendency  to  diffuse  itself  while 
they  have  a  strong  affinity  for  other  matter.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  heat  is  closely  connected  with  light,  as  the  one  is 
generally  accompanied  by  the  other.  That  heat  has  no 
weight  is  proved  by  weighing  a  piece  of  ice,  and  then  melt- 
ing it,  the  water  produced  will  weigh  the  same  as  the  ice. 
The  chief  sources  of  heat  are  the  sun,  chemical  and  mechan- 
ical action,  and  electricity.  Many  speculations  have  been 
indulged  in  as  to  what  composes  the  sun,  that  it  should 
continue  to  give  undiminished  heat  without  exhausting  the 
material  by  which  it  is  supported.  That  chemical  action 
is  a  source  of  heat,  may  be  demonstrated  by  combining  two 
or  more  substances  to  produce  a  new  substance  totally  dif- 
ferent in  its  nature  from  either;  an  increase  of  temperature 
alway  accompanies  such  action,  as  may  be  proved  by  mixing 
sulphuric  acid  and  water  in  equal  quantities;  it  forms  a 
new  substance  and  gives  off  heat.  Combustion  is  a  chem- 
ical union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  with  the  com- 
bustible body,  or  some  of  its  elements.  Animal  heat  is 
produced  by  a  similar  process:  when  we  breathe  air  is  drawn 
into  the  lungs,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  part- 
icles of  carbon  contained  in  the  blood;  there  is  then  a 
chemical  union  of  the  carbon  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
inhaled,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  combustion,  latent  heat  is 
evolved.  Friction,  percussion,  and  compression  are  illustra- 


Height  of  Cupola.  205  Herbertz  Steam-jet  Cupola. 

tions,  showing  that  mechanical  action  is  a  source  of  heat; 
and  electricity  is  conclusively  shown  to  be  another  source 
of  heat,  as  the  heat  produced  by  its  action  will  melt  almost 
any  known  substance.  See  COMBUSTION  ;  TEMPERATURE. 

Height  of  Cupola. — What  is  commonly  understood 
to  be  the  height  of  a  cupola  is  the  distance  from  the  bottom 
up  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  charging- hole.  When  it  is 
desired  to  obtain  the  best  results  when  melting  with  hard 
coal  or  coke,  the  height  for  all  cupolas  up  to  fifty  inches 
diameter  should  be  at  least  five  diameters  ;  but  when  the 
diameter  exceeds  fifty  inches,  the  height  may  be  four 
diameters  from  the  bottom  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  charg- 
ing-hole.  See  CUPOLA  ;  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA. 

Helper  is  one  who  assists  a  mechanic  or  artist  in  the 
regular  routine  of  his  work,  the  more  laborious  and  simple 
duties  being  his  especial  work,  for  which  reason  he  is  usual- 
ly recognized  as  an  unskilled  laborer. 

Hematite. — A  valuable  iron  ore,  consisting  chiefly  of 
peroxide  of  iron.  It  occurs  in  large  quantities,  its  two 
chief  varieties  being  red  and  brown  hematite.  An  earthy 
kind,  called  iron-froth,  consists  almost  entirely  of  iron. 
Brown  hematite  contains  about  14  per  cent  of  water.  See 
RED  HEMATITE. 

Hemp  Rope. — A  thin  hemp  band  is  sometimes 
wrapped  on  core-barrels  in  place  of  hay  or  straw  rope  when 
it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  greater  thickness  of  loam  than 
would  be  possible  if  either  of  those  materials  were  employed. 
See  CORE-BARREL  ;  HAY  ROPE  ;  ORDNANCE  ;  ROPE. 

Herbertz  Steam-jet  Cupola.— See  STEAM-JET 
CUPOLA. 


Hessian  Crucible.  206  Hoisting-machine. 

Hessian  Crucible.— A  triangular-shaped  crucible, 
made  from  the  best  fire-clay  and  coarse  sand.  They  are  a 
cheap  kind,  and  come  in  nests  of  sizes  from  2  to  8  inches 
high.  They  are  usually  for  experimental  purposes,  and 
seldom  last  but  once.  See  CRUCIBLE. 

Hexagon. — A  plane  figure  bounded  by  six  straight 
lines.  When  these  are  equal  the  hexagon  is  regular. 

Hide-faced  Hammers. — Hammers  provided  with 
faces  of  hide,  suitable  for  a  variety  of  uses,  but  especially 
valuable  where  light,  thin  castings  are  made  from  iron  or 
brass  patterns. 

Hinged  Flasks  are  flasks  operated  by  hinges  fixed 
on  their  sides  or  ends  instead  of  slides  or  pins,  making  it 
only  necessary  to  elevate  one  side  or  end  in  order  to  sepa- 
rate the  parts.  Suitable  hinges  of  a  self-adjustable  kind, 
if  properly  secured  in  their  respective  positions,  are  a  posi- 
tive fit,  and  never  get  out  of  order. 

Flasks,  paired  with  hinges,  require  less  space  to  operate 
them  in,  and  are  valuable  in  small  foundries  where  it 
would  be  impossible  to  lift  large  flasks  entirely  off  the 
joint.  Resting  in  hinges,  they  may  be  separated  very 
effectively  with  half  the  force  required  by  the  common 
methods.  See  FLASKS. 

Hoisting-block. — See  HOISTING-MACHINE. 

Hoisting-machine  is  a  convenient  hoisting-block, 
very  handy  for  use  in  places  remote  from  the  crane.  The 
Weston  differential  pulley-blocks  lift  from  -J  to  10  tons, 
and  with  them  one  man  may  lift  from  1000  to  5000  pounds, 
according  to  the  kind  of  block  employed.  The  load  is 
held  at  any  point  and  cannot  run  down,  thus  preventing 
all  danger  from  accident  by  that  source.  See  CRANE. 


Hole.  207  Hollow-ware  Moulding. 

Hole. — A  foundry  term  for  a  pit  or  trench  dug  in  the 
sand  floor,  in  which  to  mould  a  casting  by  the  bedding-in 
process.  Such  a  hole  takes  the  place  of  cheeks  and  nowel 
parts  of  the  flask.  See  BEDDING  IN  ;  PIT. 

Hollow  Metal  Castings. — Hollow  or  shell  cast- 
ings, in  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  their  alloys,  are  obtained  by 
using  a  brass  mould,  which  is  filled  with  metal,  and,  after 
due  time  has  been  allowed  for  a  skin  to  congeal  on  the 
surface,  inverted,  to  allow  the  molten  portion  to  escape. 
What  remains,  forms  a  crust  of  metal  answering  to  the 
form  of  the  mould.  See  STATUARY-FOUNDING. 

Hollow  Shot  are  made  similar  to  other  hollow  cast- 
ings, except  that  the  flasks  containing  the  moulds  are  re- 
versed a  few  times  immediately  the  gates  have  set.  This 
forces  the  fluid  iron  equally  against  the  sides  both  in  top 
and  bottom  parts,  prevents  flattening  of  the  top  side,  and 
thus  preserves  a  true  spherical  form  in  the  casting.  The 
same  with  solid  shot:  the  moulds  are  reversed  as  soon  as 
possible,  which  allows  the  fluid  metal  to  first  congeal  on 
the  sides  and  the  shrinkage  to  be  made  good  from  the  more 
fluid  mass  inside  the  ball,  which  naturally  leaves  the  centre 
in  a  spongy  condition,  yet  is  preferable  to  a  flattened  upper 
surface.  See  SHOT  ;  PROJECTILES  ;  FEEDING. 

Hollow- ware  Moulding  is  not  necessarily  differ- 
ent from  the  moulding  of  other  fine  objects  so  far  as  the 
processes  are  concerned.  This  class  of  moulding  is  es- 
pecially confined  to  boilers,  pots,  pans,  kettles,  including 
all  those  cast  vessels  for  domestic  use.  Owing  to  the  neces- 
sity of  having  most  of  these  patterns  and  flasks  in  sections, 
considerable  ingenuity  is  exercised  in  their  arrangement, 
and  the  patterns,  usually  of  iron  or  brass,  are  elegantly 
fitted  together  and  finished.  The  iron  part-flasks  are,  in 


Homogeneous.  208  Hood. 

some  instances,  marvels  of  ingenuity  ;  the  system  of  pins, 
latches,  clamps,  and  runners  being  well  worthy  of  copying 
by  founders  engaged  in  the  production  of  castings  that  are 
similar  in  design  and  only  differ  in  name. 

Homogeneous. — Of  the  same  kind  or  nature;  hav- 
ing similar  parts;  or,  of  elements  of  the  like  nature;  as, 
homogeneous  particles,  elements,  or  principles;  homogene- 
ous bodies. 

Honeycombing  is  the  peculiar  phenomena  present  in 
the  upper  portion  of  cast-steel  ingots  and  steel  castings,  as 
well  as  those  of  brass  and  cast  iron.  In  some  instances  this 
is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  liberation  of  imprisoned  gases 
which,  for  the  lack  of  pressure,  remain  within  the  mass  of 
metal  and  form  the  honeycombing  structure  seen.  Many 
schemes  have  been  tried  to  prevent  this,  such  as  regulating 
the  speed  of  pouring,  temperature  of  metal  for  pouring 
with,  covering  the  top  with  sand,  molten  slag,  etc. ;  also  by 
the  introduction  of  some  alloy,  as  aluminum;  but  none  of 
these  seem  to  be  as  effective  for  this  purpose  as  the  method 
pursued  by  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth,  which  consists  of  sub- 
mitting the  fluid  metal  to  an  enormous  hydraulic  pressure, 
which  is  maintained  until  the  ingot  has  solidified.  Some 
of  the  aluminum  alloys  have  been  credited  with  the  ability 
to  render  steel  castings  perfectly  sound,  besides  making 
the  resultant  steel  tougher.  Some  claim  that  by  using  this 
alloy  manganese  can  be  discarded  and  time  and  fuel 
saved.  See  PRESSING  FLUID  STEEL;  INGOTS;  BLISTERS; 
BLOW-HOLES;  ALUMINUM;  SILICON. 

Hood  is  all  that  portion  of  the  cupola  shell  which 
extends  above  the  charging-hole.  It  is  best  to  contract 
the  hood  in  size  somewhat,  and  carry  it  up  sufficiently  high 
to  induce  a  good  draught,  which  not  only  serves  a  good  pur- 


Hook.  209  Horizontal  Casting. 

pose  in  lighting  up  the  first  charges  of  fuel,  but  is  a 
considerable  auxiliary  to  the  blower.  See  CUPOLA;  LIGHT- 
ING THE  CUPOLA. 

Hook.— A  forged  piece  of  iron  bent  into  a  suitable 
curve  for  some  purpose  of  catching,  holding,  or  sustaining; 
such  as  the  crane-hook,  sling-hook,  chain-hook,  changing- 
liook,  etc.  The  importance  of  making  all  such  hooks  well 
and  of  good  material  will  suggest  itself  to  those  who  know 
the  risks  which  are  taken  daily  in  the  foundry  and  else- 
where by  men  who  must  necessarily  pass  under  and  work 
in  close  proximity  to  loads  suspended  thereon.  See  CHAIN; 
CRAKES. 

Hook-bolt. — A  bolt,  one  end  of  which  is  threaded 
for  a  nut,  the  other  turned  as  a  hook,  and  used  for  various 
purposes  in  the  foundry,  such  as  binding  portions  of  loam 
and  dry-sand  moulds  together,  anchoring  cores  in  lower 
moulds,  and  suspending  them  in  covering-plates  and  copes. 
See  ANCHOR. 

Hoop-Milder. — A  substitute  for  the  binding-plate 
in  a  brick  cope,  consisting  of  a  length  of  hoop-iron  with 
which  to  tie  the  course  of  brick.  These  may  be  used  for 
ordinary  purposes  instead  of  binding-plates  by  turning  a 
hook  on  each  end  of  the  hoop-iron,  the  hooks  to  meet 
within  four  inches  round  the  brickwork,  to  be  there  tied 
with  a  few  laps  of  softened  wire,  and  brought  up  close  by 
inserting  a  small  pointed  bar  between  the  strands  of  \yire 
and  twisting  them  one  on  another.  Another  method  is  to 
rivet  lugs  on  the  ends  and  draw  them  together  by  means  of 
a  bolt.  See  BINDING-PLATE;  COPE. 

Horizontal  Casting. — When  a  casting  is  poured 
endwise  in  the  pit,  it  is  cast  vertically;  if  the  same  casting 
is  poured  flat  on  the  floor,  it  is  then  cast  horizontally. 


Horn  gate.  210  Hot  and  Cold  Blast. 

Horn-gate.  —See  FOUNTAIN-RUNNER. 

Horn  -  quicksilver. — The  native  subchloride  of 
mercury.  It  occurs  in  the  mines  of  Idria  in  Carniola,  and 
Almaden  in  Spain.  See  MERCURY. 

Horse. — A  common  term  for  the  trestle  or  stands 
used  for  blocking  moulds  in  the  foundry.  See  STANDS; 
TRESTLE. 

Horse-manure. — A  means  for  conveying  gases  from 
the  loam  used  for  building  and  coating  the  moulds  and 
cores.  The  quality  of  sands  and  mixtures  employed  for 
this  purpose  is  necessarily  hard  and  unyielding,  having 
little  porosity,  and  must  therefore  be  rendered  porous  by 
artificial  means.  Besides  imparting  porosity,  the  manure 
possesses  a  quality  of  stickiness  which  renders  the  sand  or 
loam  more  cohesive,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  to  be 
preferred  to  other  substances,  as  coke-dust,  sawdust,  etc. , 
which  are  frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  See  LOAM; 
FACING-SAND;  VENTING. 

Hose. — A  flexible  pipe,  made  of  rubber,  leather,  and 
various  other  flexible  materials,  for  conveying  fluids,  espe_ 
cially  water.  When  of  good  quality  and  properly  cared  for 
by  providing  reels  to  wind  them  on  when  not  in  use,  and 
paying  strict  attention  to  the  joints,  they  are  a  great  help 
in  the  foundry,  saving  much  time  in  carrying  water  to 
and  fro. 

Hot  and  Cold  Blast.— When  the  stream  of  air 
forced  through  a  furnace  is  drawn  direct  from  the  atmos- 
phere, it  is  called  cold-blast;  when  it  is  heated  to  500°  be- 
fore it  enters  the  furnace,  it  is  called  hot-blast.  The  com- 
bustible gases  which  come  from  the  stack  are  invariably 


House  bells.  211  Hydraulics. 

used  to  heat  the  air  in  a  kind  of  oven  built  near  the  top  of 
the  stack,  and  surmounted  by  a  chimney  which  draws  off 
some  portion.  In  this  oven  a  series  of  pipes  are  built, 
around  which  the  fire  plays  whilst  the  air  is  being  forced 
through  them  before  it  enters  the  furnace.  A  considerable 
saving  of  heat  is  effected  by  this  method,  the  reduction  of 
the  most  refractory  ores  being  accomplished  in  less  time 
and  with  a  less  expenditure  for  fuel  than  the  cold  blast. 
As  the  melting  metal  necessarily  comes  in  contact  with  less 
fuel,  and  as  a  less  quantity  of  air  enters  the  furnace,  the 
chemical  reactions  are  somewhat  modified,  but  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  quality  of 
the  product.  See  BLAST-FURNACE;  BLAST. 

House-bells. — A  special  mixture  for  this  class  of  bells 
is  copper  77,  tin  21,  antimony  2.  See  BELL-METAL;  BRASS. 

Hundredweight  signifies  a  weight  of  112  Ibs.  avoir- 
dupois. Twenty  of  these,  or  2240  Ibs.,  make  one  ton.  This 
weight  is  expressed  by  the  abbreviation  cwt.  See  TON. 

Hydraulic  Casting-press. — Used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  homogeneous  steel.  See  HONEYCOMBING  ;  COM- 
PRESSED CASTINGS. 

Hydraulic  Crane. — Invented  by  Sir  William  Arm- 
strong in  1846,  who  erected  the  first  in  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
These  cranes  have  come  into  very  extensive  use  where  water 
under  sufficient  pressure  is  available.  But  it  would  seem 
that  the  latter  condition  is  now  made  unnecessary  by  the 
invention  of  the  steam  hydraulic  crane.  See  CRANES. 

Hydraulics. — The  science  of  hydraulics  treats  of 
liquids  in  motion,  whether  issuing  from  orifices,  or  running 
in  pipes  or  the  beds  of  streams.  If  an  opening  be  made  in 


Hydrocarbon  Furnace.  212  Hydrogen. 

the  side  or  bottom  of  a  vessel  containing  a  liquid,  as  molten 
metal,  etc.,  the  latter  will  at  once  be  forced  through  it,  as 
the  particles  at  that  point  are  acted  upon  by  the  pressure  of 
those  above.  The  rapidity  of  a  stream  flowing  out  of  an  ori- 
fice depends  upon  the  depth  of  the  latter  below  the  surface 
of  the  liquid.  A  liquid  issues  from  a  given  orifice  with 
equal  velocity  as  long  as  the  liquid  is  kept  at  the  same 
height  in  the  vessel,  but  if  the  pressure  is  diminished  by  a 
lack  of  supply  above,  the  liquid  gets  lower,  with  a  propor- 
tionate diminution  in  the  velocity  of  the  stream.  The 
weight  of  water  or  molten  metal  is  as  the  quantity,  but  the 
pressure  exerted  is  as  the  vertical  height.  Fluids  exert  an 
equal  pressure  in  every  direction;  hence  any  vessel  contain- 
ing a  fluid  sustains  a  pressure  equal  to  as  many  times  the 
weight  of  the  column  of  greatest  height  of  that  fluid  as  the 
area  of  the  vessel  is  to  the  sectional  area  of  the  column. 
See  PRESSURE  OF  MOLTEN  METAL;  WEIGHTING  COPES; 
HYDROSTATIC  BELLOWS. 

Hydrocarbon  Furnace. — A  furnace  having  spe- 
cial burners  suitable  for  using  liquid  fuel.  The  burners 
consist  of  an  apparatus  which  allows  a  forced  jet  of  air  and 
steam  to  carry  with  them  a  certain  quantity  of  petroleum 
which  is  distributed  into  the  furnace  in  the  form  of  spray, 
and  there  burns  with  an  intensity  proportionate  to  the 
amount  of  fuel  supplied. 

Hydrogen  is  the  lightest  substance  known,  and  pos- 
sesses nearly  all  the  properties  of  a  non-metal  in  such  per- 
fection, that  chemists  have  long  hesitated  to  class  it  with 
the  metals,  though  its  chemical  relations  clearly  show  it 
to  belong  to  that  class  of  elements.  It  combines  with 
nearly  every  non-metal,  but  with  only  two  or  three  of  the 
metals.  Hydrogen  is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  inodorous 
when  quite  pure.  It  is  inflammable,  and  burns  with  a  pale 


Hydrostatic  Balance.  213  Hydrostatic  Bellows 

yellowish  flame,  evolving  much  heat  but  very  little  light. 
The  result  of  the  combustion  is  water.  It  has  never  been 
liquefied,  and  is  even  less  soluble  in  water  than  oxygen.  It 
is  incapable  of  sustaining  life,  but  contains  no  poisonous 
properties.  Hydrogen  is  never  found  free  in  nature,  but 
exists  abundantly  in  combination,  forming  one  ninth  by 
weight  of  water,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  all  organ- 
ized substances.  It  is  the  lightest  of  all  known  substances, 
being  16  times  lighter  than  oxygen  and  14J  times  lighter 
than  air;  its  density  is  placed  at  0.0692  referred  to  that  of 
air  as  unity,  100  cubic  inches  weighing  about  2.14  grains. 

Hydrostatic  Balance. — A  specific-gravity  balance. 
See  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY;  SPECIFIC-GRAVITY  BALANCE. 

Hydrostatic  Bellows  is  an  apparatus  which  serves 
to  explain  that  peculiar  property  of  liquids,  including 
molten  iron,  in  virtue  of  which  they  transmit  pressure  in 
every  direction. 

The  hydrostatic  bellows  consists  of  two  boards  held  to- 
gether by  a  band  of  rubber,  which  allows  a  bellows  motion 
to  take  place  when  force  is  applied  inside.  These  form  an 
absolutely  tight  chamber,  to  which  a  small  tube  is  attached 
by  inserting  it  in  the  top  side.  The  water  is  poured  down 
the  tube,  and  as  the  chamber  fills  the  upper  board  rises 
with  the  pressure.  If  the  surface  of  the  board  is  fifty  times 
as  large  as  the  end  of  the  tube,  one  pound  of  water  will 
balance  fifty  pounds  of  weight  on  the  board.  Because  the 
surface  of  the  cover  is  fifty  times  larger  than  the  orifice  of 
the  tube,  there  are  fifty  times  as  many  particles  of  water  in 
contact  with  the  board  as  there  are  at  the  end  of  the  tube, 
and  as  each  particle  throughout  the  whole  surface  is  made 
to  exert  the  same  pressure,  one  pound  of  water  in  the  tube 
should  balance  fifty  pounds  on  the  board. 

If  the  moulder  who  may  be  unacquainted  with  these  sub- 


Igneous  Rocks.  214  Impressions  on  Cast  Iron. 

jects  will  carefully  examine  this  apparent  paradox,  and  in 
his  mind  substitute  for  the  tube  a  down-runner  leading  to 
a  mould  below,  in  which  molten  metal  instead  of  water  is 
to  be  poured,  he  will  at  once  discover  that  the  only  differ- 
ence betwixt  the  two  is  the  difference  in  weight  of  the  water 
and  the  metal.  This  will  enable  him  to  realize  why  so 
small  a  runner  will  lift  such  a  great  weight.  See  WEIGHT- 
IKG  COPES  ;  PRESSURE  OF  MOLTEN  METAL. 


I. 

Igneous  Rocks  include  granitic,  trappean,  and  vol- 
canic series,  all  of  which  rocks  have  been  produced  by 
fusion,  on  the  surface,  or  in  the  interior,  of  the  earth's 
crust.  See  ROCK. 

Imitation  Gold. — An  alloy  of  baser  metals  which 
produces  a  yellow  compound  metal  resembling  gold.  See 
GOLD  ALLOY;  TOMBAC. 

Imitation  Silver.— An  alloy  of  metals  for  manu- 
facturing articles  of  jewelry,  etc.,  in  artificial  silver.  An 
alloy  having  the  same  specific  gravity  as  silver  consists  of : 
copper  11.71,  platinum  2.4,  silver  3.53. 

The  following  is  a  beautiful  imitation  silver  that  retains 
its  brilliancy  :  Tin  4|,  bismuth  J,  antimony  |,  lead  J. 

Many  other  alloys  of  this  description  are  given  under 
their  respective  heads.  See  SILVER  ALLOYS;  MOCK  SIL- 
VER; GERMAN-SILVER;  TOMBAC. 

Impact. — An  instantaneous  blow  communicated  from 
a  moving  body  to  another  body  either  moving  or  at 
rest. 

Impressions  on  Cast  Iron.— See  EMBROIDERY 


Impurities  in  Cast  Iron.  215  India  Cast  Steel. 

IMPRESSIONS   ON    CAST   IRON  ;   HANDWRITING    IMPRES- 
SIONS IN  CAST  IRON. 

Impurities  in  Cast  Iron. — The  chief  impurities 
contained  in  cast  iron  are  manganese,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
and  silicon.  Manganese  tends  to  the  formation  of  com- 
bined carbon,  reduces  tensile  strength,  produces  brittle- 
ness,  and  makes  slag.  Except  in  very  strong  castings, 
manganese  should  not  exceed  0.5  per  cent  of  the  mixture. 
Sulphur  contributes  to  retain  the  carbon  in  the  combined 
state,  and  promotes  the  formation  of  combined  carbon. 
Foundry  irons  should  not  contain  more  than  0.1  per  cent 
of  this  element.  Phosphorus  causes  hardness  by  lowering 
the  separation  of  graphite,  but  increases  fluidity.  From 
0.3  to  0.5  per  cent  of  this  element  is  all  that  should  be  al- 
lowed in  foundry  mixtures,  unless  cases  where  great  fluid- 
ity, regardless  of  strength,  is  the  chief  desideratum.  Sili- 
con increases  fluidity,  reduces  hardness  and  shrinkage,  by 
changing  combined  into  graphitic  carbon.  Any  addition 
of  silicon  after  the  bulk  of  the  carbon  has  become  gra- 
phitic hardens  the  casting.  Cast-iron  mixtures  may  con- 
tain from  1.75  to  2.5  per  cent  of  silicon.  See  CAST  IRON; 
SILICON;  SOFTENERS. 

Incoherent. — Wanting  in  coherence  or  cohesion  ; 
unconnected;  loose,  not  joined  to  each  other,  as  the  par- 
ticles in  free  sand. 

Incombustible. — Cannot  be  decomposed,  burned, 
or  consumed  by  fire.  See  REFRACTORY  MATERIALS. 

India  Cast  Steel  is  a  species  of  steel  of  extraordi- 
nary quality,  and  common!}7  called  Wootz  steel.  It  is  im- 
ported into  this  country  and  Europe  for  the  manufacture 
of  fine  edge  instruments,  etc.  It  is  said  that  the  cele- 


India-rubber.  216  India-rubber. 

brated  Damascus  blades  were  made  of  it.  The  process  of 
making  consists  of  melting  small  pieces  of  wrought  iron, 
mixed  with  some  twigs  and  dried  mould,  covered  up  well 
with  green  leaves,  and  luted.  The  crucibles  are  built  in 
the  form  of  a  pyramid,  inside  the  furnace,  and  exposed  to 
a  strong  heat.  The  pieces  of  wootz,  about  as  big  as  a  wal- 
nut, are  not  disturbed  until  the  crucible  has  cooled.  The 
metal  contains  traces  of  silica  and  alumina,  and  about 
the  maximum  amount  of  carbon  ordinarily  found  in  steel. 
Wootz  has  been  known  throughout  the  East  from  remote 
antiquity.  See  STEEL. 

India-rubber,  or  Gum-elastic,  is  the  dried  juice  of 
tropical  plants.  It  has  a  close  resemblance  to  some  of  the 
gum  resins,  but  differs  from  them  in  that  the  latter  do  not 
contain  caoutchouc.  This  remarkable  gum  is  supposed  to 
have  been  discovered  by  a  voyager  on  the  second  expedition 
of  Columbus,  who  saw  some  natives  of  Hayti  playing  games 
with  balls  made  from  elastic  gurn.  The  india-rubber  in- 
dustry began  in  earnest  about  the  beginning  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  on  a  very  small  scale,  but  in  1870  there 
were  nearly  200  manufactories  in  America  and  Europe, 
who  consumed  annually  more  than  ten  million  pounds  of 
caoutchouc.  India-rubber  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon.  Dilute  acids  or  alkalies  do  not  act  upon  the  gum; 
but  it  is  oxidized  and  destroyed  by  concentrated  nitric 
acid,  and  charred  with  strong,  hot  sulphuric  acid.  It  is 
dissolved,  more  or  less  perfectly,  in  melted  naphthaline, 
benzol,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  petroleum,  and  the  oils,  both 
fixed  and  volatile.  It  fuses  at  250°  F.  Mr.  Goodyear  in- 
vented the  system  of  vulcanizing  this  gum  by  incorporat- 
ing with  it  from  2  to  3  per  cent  of  sulphur,  which  increases 
its  elasticity  and  prevents  it  from  adhering  to  the  moulds 
when  subjected  to  pressure.  Carbonate  of  lead  and  nu- 
merous other  substances  are  also  added  to  india-rubber 


Indigo- copper.  217  Ingot. 

for  the  manufacture  of  some  special  goods.  If  immersed 
in  fused  sulphur  at  250°  F.,  india-rubber  absorbs  15  per 
cent  of  the  sulphur  and  is  not  materially  changed.  If, 
however,  it  be  now  subjected  for  an  hour  to  a  temperature 
of  300°  F.,  combination  takes  place,  and  vulcanized  caout- 
chouc is  the  result.  A  further  increase  of  temperature 
changes  it  to  ebonite,  or  black  vulcanite,  a  substance  in 
great  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  countless  articles  in 
every-day  use.  If  the  sulphur  be  first  dissolved  in  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  this  used  for  dissolving  the  india-rubber, 
the  mixture  remaining  (after  the  turpentine  has  evapo- 
rated) will  be  india-rubber  and  sulphur,  which  substance 
can  be  readily  pressed  into  plaster  or  metal  moulds  of  any 
desired  form,  and  the  articles  then  vulcanized  by  subject- 
ing them  for  an  hour  to  a  temperature  of  280°  F.  in  a 
closed  iron  vessel  into  which  steam  at  high  pressure  is  ad- 
mitted. See  RESIN. 

Indigo  -  copper.  —  A  native  sulphuret  of  copper, 
generally  found  uncrystallized,  but  sometimes  occurring  in 
hexagonal  crystals.  Its  color  is  indigo-blue  ;  contains  cop- 
per 66.5,  sulphur  33.5  ;  specific  gravity  4.6.  It  is  found 
in  the  lava  of  Vesuvius,  Bolivia,  and  Chili.  See  COPPER. 

Infusible. — Cannot  be  melted,  dissolved,  or  infused. 
Proof  against  fusion,  as  an  infusible  sand  or  crucible.  See 
REFRACTORY  MATERIALS. 

Ingate.— See  GATE. 

Ingot. — A  mass  of  metal  which  has  been  cast  in  a  suit- 
able mould  for  convenience  in  subsequent  working  by  the 
various  processes  of  rolling,  hammering,  casting,  etc. ; 
some  consideration  is  also  given  to  the  best  forms  for  ship- 
ping, etc.  Copper  is  made  into  bricks  and  pigs;  tin  into 


Ingot.  218  Ingot. 

blocks;  zinc  into  cakes.  These  are  all  run  into  metal 
moulds  which  give  them  their  respective  shapes.  The 
blocks  of  commercial  gold  and  silver  are  called  bars.  Cast 
iron  is  run  direct  from  the  smelting-furnace  into  moulds 
formed  in  an  adjacent  sand-bed,  the  product  being  pigs. 

Running  or  "  teeming  "  steel  ingots,  produced  by  melt- 
ing blister-steel  in  crucibles,  or  from  steel  prepared  by 
melting  puddled  steel  with  spiegeleisen  or  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  if  the  ingots  are  small,  is  usually  done  by  hand, 
by  simply  emptying  the  contents  of  the  crucible  direct  into 
the  cast-iron  ingot-mould.  If  one  crucible  is  insufficient 
to  fill  the  mould  the  pots  are  doubled,  that  is,  two  crucibles 
are  emptied  into  one  larger,  so  that  the  one  operation  suf- 
fices ;  but  in  larger-sized  ingots  it  is  often  necessary  to  em- 
ploy two  streams  in  order  to  secure  an  uninterrupted  flow 
of  steel  into  the  mould.  Extra-large  ingots,  made  from 
this  class  of  steel,  are  often  run  from  one  ladle  by  simply 
melting  all  the  steel  in  the  several  crucibles  and  emptying 
their  contents  therein.  The  ladle  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose is  clay  or  brick  lined,  and  provided  with  a  nozzle  at 
the  bottom,  in  which  a  gannister  plug  or  stopper  is  fitted. 
This  stopper  is  connected  with  a  vertical  rod  attached  to 
the  arm  for  raising  and  lowering  the  stopper  ;  the  rod  itself 
being  inside  the  ladle,  is  necessarily  coated  with  about  1J 
inches  of  the  gannister  composition  also.  By  this  means  a 
continuous  stream  of  molten  steel  is  delivered,  clear  of  the 
mould  sides,  and  without  fear  of  intermission  until  the 
space  is  filled. 

This  ladle,  as  just  described,  is  the  one  used  for  running 
the  steel  ingots  produced  by  the  Bessemer  process,  only  in 
this  instance  it  is  suspended  on  an  arm  which  extends  from 
the  head  of  the  hydraulic  crane  in  the  centre  of  the  casting- 
pit.  The  ingot-moulds,  being  arranged  in  order  around 
the  outer  diameter  of  this  pit,  are  filled  in  succession  by 
simply  bringing  the  ladle  directly  over  and  allowing  them  to 


Ingot.  219  Ingot. 

fill  by  withdrawing  the  plug  at  the  bottom.  Sometimes 
these  ingots  are  cast  in  groups  arranged  round  a  central 
one  that  is  placed  higher  than  the  rest,  and  connected  with 
the  latter  by  means  of  a  system  of  fire-clay  runners  which 
radiate  from  the  central  ingot,  at  the  bottom,  to  as  many 
as  may  be  grouped  around  it.  The  steel  in  this  case 
enters  the  central  ingot  at  the  top,  and  gradually  fills  all 
the  rest  from  the  bottom. 

Very  large  ingots,  which  are  sometimes  over  20  feet  long 
and  may  weigh  from  14  tons  up,  are  preferably  cast  from 
the  bottom,  and  suitable  provision  is  made  by  forming  a 
fountain-runner  within  a  core  made  from  a  gannister  and 
fire-clay  mixture,  which  is  set  in  the  prepared  bottom  of 
the  mould.  One  end  of  this  runner  extends  past  the  ingot- 
casing,  and  is  connected  with  a  vertical  cast-iron  and  gan- 
nister-lined  runner-box,  which,  resting  thereon,  is  made  to 
project  somewhat  above  the  top  of  the  ingot-casing.  This 
casing  usually  consists  of  two  wrought  or  cast  iron  half- 
circles,  protected  by  a  fire-brick  lining  coated  with  some 
refractory  composition.  These  halves,  when  duly  prepared, 
are  bolted  together,  with  a  loam  packing  between  the  join- 
ing flanges,  and  then  brought  into  a  vertical  position  for 
setting  down,  on  a  soft  loam  packing  also,  upon  the  lower 
portion  of  mould  already  in  the  pit.  Ingots  of  even 
larger  dimensions  are  often  made  with  a  central  core. 
Owing  to  the  intense  heat  to  which  these  cores  are  sub- 
jected, the  ordinary  preparations  are  simply  valueless,  as 
they  are  sure  to  be  melted.  To  overcome  this  difficulty, 
the  cores  are  made  in  one  or  more  lengths,  as  desired,  by 
ramming  composition  sand  of  a  very  refractory  nature 
around  an  ordinary  cage  core-iron,  the  cast  rings  of  which 
are  not  permitted  to  approach  the  surface  by  at  least  two 
inches.  By  this  means  a  core  is  obtained  containing  the 
smallest  amount  of  iron  possible  in  its  construction ;  in  fact 
it  is,  literally,  a  sand-core  almost  free  from  substances  which 


Ingot-mould.  220  Intaglio. 

would  be  likely  to  melt.  All  such  ingots  are  invariably  run 
at  the  bottom.  See  PRESSING  FLUID  STEEL  ;  REEKING 
INGOT-MOULDS  ;  RUNNING  STEEL  INGOTS. 

Ingot-mould. — The  metal,  sand,  or  fire-brick  moulds 
in  which  metals  are  cast  to  form  ingots  suitable  for  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  purposes.  The  brass-founder's 
ingot-moulds  are  of  cast  iron,  about  two  feet  long  and 
wide  enough  to  form  three  tapered  ingots  7  by  2  inches, 
or  of  a  size  suitable  for  stowing  in  the  crucible  for  remel't- 
ing.  The  webs  which  divide  such  an  ingot-mould  into 
three  are  notched  at  the  top,  midway;  this  allows  of  each 
mould  being  filled  without  removing  the  crucible  from 
that  in  which  the  metal  is  poured.  See  INGOT;  BRASS 
SCRAPS;  BRASS. 

Insect  Casts  in  Metal.— To  produce  a  perfect 
cast  of  an  insect,  animal,  or  vegetable  in  metal,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  obtain  a  box  large  enough  to  hold  whatever  it 
is  desired  to  produce,  with  a  little  space  to  spare.  After 
suspending  the  object  with  strings  in  a  suitable  position, 
attach  the  vents  and  pouring-gate,  and  fill  the  space  with 
a  composition  made  from  plaster  of  Paris  2  parts,  and 
finely  ground  brick-dust  or  talc  1  part.  The  operation 
must  be  carefully  performed.  The  whole  is  then  gently 
dried,  and  afterwards  made  red-hot  so  as  to  reduce  to  fine 
ashes  whatever  was  placed  therein.  The  vents,  being  placed 
at  all  the  extremities,  are  of  assistance  in  blowing  the  ashes 
out  at  the  running-gate,  and  these  in  conjunction  with  the 
holes  made  by  the  strings  will  permit  all  gas  to  escape 
when  the  metal  is  poured  in  at  the  gate. 

A  good  alloy  for  small  objects  cast  after  this  manner  is 
tin  6,  lead  3,  bismuth  2. 

Intaglio.— A   kind  of  engraving  distinguished  from 


Iridium.  221  Iron  Alloys. 

cameo  by  having  the  engraved  figures  sunk  into  the  sub- 
stance instead  of  being  raised  in  relief.  Seals  and  other 
similar  articles  are  engraved  thus.  See  EILIEVO. 

Iridium. — A  white  brittle  metal,  which  may  be  fused 
by  means  of  a  powerful  oxyhydrogen  blast-furnace.  In  its 
isolated  form  it  is  unacted  upon  by  any  acid  or  by  aqua 
regia,  but  as  an  alloy  it  is  dissolved  in  the  latter  fluid.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  21.15.  An  alloy  of  iridium  and  osmium 
is  very  hard,  and  is  used  for  pointing  gold  pens.  See 
METALS. 

Iron. — Of  all  metals  iron  is  the  most  important.  The 
pure  metal  is  found  only  in  such  rare  instances  as  in  the 
case  of  meteorites  which  have  fallen  from  space.  In  South 
America  and  elsewhere  isolated  masses  of  soft  malleable 
iron  have  been  found  loose  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  these  too  would  seem  to  owe  their  origin  to  the 
same  meteoric  source.  In  these  specimens  of  native 
metallic  iron  nickel  is  usually  found.  The  presence  of 
iron  in  an  oxidized  condition  is  universal :  rocks  and  soils 
are  colored  by  it,  plants  contain  it,  as  also  does  the  blood 
of  the  human  body.  Pure  iron  is  very  soft  and  tough,  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  7.8,  is  white,  and  has  a  perfect  lustre. 
It  may  be  observed  that  there  always  exists  a  very  distinct 
fibrous  texture  in  good  bar-iron  after  it  has  been  attacked 
with  acid;  the  perfection  of  this  fibre  is  what  gives  it 
strength.  See  MALLEABLE  IKON;  CAST  IRON;  STRENGTH 
OF  MATERIALS. 

Iron  Alloys. — Very  few  of  the  metals  alloy  with  cast 
iron  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  of  any  practical  value  to 
the  founder.  True,  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the 
resultant  mixture  by  the  addition  of  alloys,  but  it  does  not 
affect  them  favorably  as  a  rule.  By  the  addition  of  a 


Iron  Carrier,  Foundry.  Iron  Carrier,  Foundry. 

quarter  of  one  per  cent  of  copper,  well  stirred  into  the 
molten  iron,  a  perceptible  increase  of  density  may  be 
noticed,  and  the  strength  is  increased  somewhat.  Again, 
if  from  10  to  15  per  cent  of  wrought  scraps  can  be  success- 
fully mixed  with  the  cast  iron  after  the  latter  has  been 
melted  the  same  improvements  are  apparent.  Much  is 
claimed  for  the  aluminum  fluxes  now  offered,  but  any 
opinion  as  to  their  worth  would,  at  this  early  stage  of  their 
application,  be  premature.  See  ALLOYS;  ALUMINUM; 
GOLD. 

Iron  Carrier,  Foundry.  —  The  Hayes  patent 
carrier  for  molten  metal  is  described  as  follows:  There 
is  a  continuous  overhead  track,  which  runs  from  the 
cupola  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  floors  and  return.  The 
floor  may  be  of  any  length;  there  is  no  carrying  of  iron 
by  hand.  On  this  track  ladles  of  any  capacity  from  four 
hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  ma)7  be  carried.  From 
these  large  ladles  the  iron  is  poured  into  smaller  ones, 
into  hand-ladles,  or  larger  ladles  with  double  handles. 

A  very  unique  and  simple  device  is  used  for  pouring  the 
iron  into  the  hand-ladles,  so  that  the  moulder  need  not  hold 
the  weight  of  the  hand-ladle  while  the  iron  is  being  poured 
from  the  large  ladle  into  the  small  one. 

The  cupola  is  not  stopped  up  from  the  time  the  iron 
commences  to  run  until  all  is  out.  The  very  unique 
arrangement  of  having  a  catch-ladle  which  swings  into  the 
stream  and  catches  the  flowing  iron  while  the  exchange  of 
large  ladles  is  being  made,  saves  all  the  annoyance  around 
the  cupola,  and  catches  all  the  iron. 

Moulders  never  need  leave  their  floors.  The  iron  is 
brought  to  them  by  common  laboring  men.  The  apparatus 
is  simple,  durable,  and  so  perfectly  safe  that  it  frees  the 
foundry  from  the  mishaps  that  often  occur  by  the  old 
methods  of  distributing  iron. 


Iron  Furnace.  223  Isosceles  Triangle. 

Iron  Furnace. — A  furnace  in  which  some  operation 
connected  with  the  manufacture  of  cast  iron,  malleable  iron, 
or  steel  is  conducted  ;  as  cupola,  smelting,  reverberatory 
furnaces,  etc.  The  several  furnaces  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose will  be  found  described  in  their  regular  order. 

Iron-lustre. — This  lustre  is  obtained  by  dissolving 
zinc  in  muriatic  acid,  and  mixing  the  solution  with  spirit 
of  tar.  To  be  applied  on  the  surface  of  the  iron. 

Iron-statue  Moulding".  —  Moulding  statuary  in 
iron.  This  branch  of  the  art  is  necessarily  more  difficult 
than  any  other  of  the  processes  followed  for  the  produc- 
tion of  statuary  in  bronze,  because  the  materials  used  for 
moulding  with  are  less  rigid,  and  demand  more  skill  in 
their  manipulation  as  a  consequence.  The  core  is  built  by 
the  moulder,  on  which  the  sculptor  carves  his  model  in 
clay  or  wax,  after  which  the  moulder  builds  his  cope  around 
it  in  sections  ;  the  latter,  when  sufficiently  hardened,  are 
lifted  away,  the  thickness  removed,  and  the  whole  mould 
finished,  dried,  closed  together,  and  cast  like  any  other 
ordinary  piece  of  loam -work.  See  STATUE-FOUKDING. 

Iron-wire  Cloth.— See  WIRE  CLOTH. 

Isinglass. — A  very  pure  form  of  gelatine  prepared 
from  the  entrails  and  air-bladders  of  fish,  notably  the  stur- 
geon/ It  is  semi-transparent  when  pure,  and  this  may 
perhaps  account  for  applying  the  name  to  the  sheets  of 
mica  employed  for  sight-holes  of  cupolas,  stoves,  etc. 

Isinglass  is  an  excellent  material  for  making  elastic 
moulds  for  obtaining  plaster  casts.  See  ELASTIC  MOULDS. 

Isosceles  Triangle  is  a  triangle  which  has  two 
equal  sides, 


Ivory-imitation.  224  Japanese  Bronze- work. 

Ivory-imitation. — A  good  imitation  of  ivory  statu- 
ettes may  be  obtained  by  casting  into  warm  plaster-moulds 
a  mixture  composed  of  finely  pulverized  egg-shells,  isin- 
glass, and  alcohol.  See  PLASTER  CASTS. 

J. 

Jacket-core. — The  core  which  forms  the  space  be- 
twixt inner  and  outer  shells  of  a  jacketed  casting,  as  a 
jacketed  cylinder,  etc.  Sometimes  these  shells  are  joined 
together  by  studs  at  intervals,  in  which  case  the  core  must 
invariably  be  made  in  one  piece,  and  vented  at  the  top 
through  holes  purposely  made  in  the  casting  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  which  are  subsequently  plugged.  If  a  convenient 
branch,  etc.,  offers  the  opportunity  for  making  adequate 
vent  connections,  the  labor  of  plugging  is  saved. 

When  the  shells  are  joined  by  parallel  webs  the  jacket- 
core  is  divided  into  as  many  segments  as  there  are  webs, 
and  each  core  is  vented  separately. 

In  the  former  case  a  cage  or  skeleton  core-iron  serves  to 
construct  the  core;  the  latter  needs  only  a  centre  web  with 
protruding  wings. 

For  constructing  a  whole  jacket-core  the  dummy -block 
is  a  cheap  and  effective  device  ;  a  narrow  core-box  is  all 
that  is  necessary  for  the  web-jacket.  See  DUMMY-BLOCK  ; 
SKELETON"  ;  CORE-IEOK  ;  VENTING. 

Jacketed  Cupola. — See  WATER-JACKET  CUPOLA. 

Japanese  Bronze-work.— The  art  of  working  in 
bronze  is  a  very  old  one  in  Japan.  The  whole  process  of 
casting  is  done  by  the  artist  himself,  who  forms  his  moulds 
from  models  designed  in  a  mixture  of  wax  and  resin  which 
is  melted  out  of  the  prepared  mould  previous  to  the  final 
pouring  of  the  metal.  By  this  means,  castings  are  obtained 


Jasper.  225  Jobbing-pipe. 

of  every  description,  from  statues  of  all  sizes  down  to  the 
most  intricate  and  delicate  tracery,  which  is  elaborated  with 
scrupulous  care,  requiring,  in  some  instances,  months  to 
prepare  the  mould. 

The  Japanese  add  tin,  zinc,  lead,  and  iron  to  their  bell 
mixtures.  Their  small  bells  contain  copper  60,  tin  24, 
zinc  9,  iron  3.  Large  bells  are  composed  of  copper  60, 
tin  18,  lead  12,  zinc  6,  iron  3.  The  mixture  is  called 
Kara-Kane.  See  BROSTZES. 

Jasper. — Like  carnelian,  agate,  and  chalcedony,  this 
mineral  is  chiefly  composed  of  silex,  but  it  always  contains 
more  iron,  and  hence,  instead  of  being  translucent,  like 
them,  it  is  always  opaque.  Its  colors  are  red,  yellow,  and 
brown  ;  specific  gravity  2.70.  Its  composition  is  silex  75, 
alumina  0.5,  lime  0.02,  iron  13.  It  is  infusible.  See 
PRECIOUS  STOKES. 

Jet-cupola. — See  STEAM-JET  CUPOLA. 
Jib-crane.— See  CRAKES. 

Jobbing-moulder. — A  moulder  whose  superior  at- 
tainments enable  him  to  mould  more  than  one  class  of 
castings.  Such  qualifications  are  acquired  only  by  perse- 
verance and  industrious  practice  in  many  foundries,  which 
not  only  differ  in  the  class  of  castings  produced  generally, 
but  differ  also  in  their  modes  of  producing  the  same  casting. 
Moulders  that  are  engaged  exclusively  on  stove-plate, 
hollow-ware,  snap-work,  etc.,  are  naturally  unable  to  do 
this  ;  hence  are  distinguished  as  stove-moulder,  hollow- 
moulder,  snap-moulder,  etc.  See  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 
FOR  THE  MOULDER. 

Jobbing-pipe. — A  technical  term  for  all  pipes  that 


Joint.  226  Kara-Kane. 

are  irregular  in  form,  including  elbows,  turns,  branch,  and 
numerous  others,  which  must  of  necessity  be  moulded  by 
such  means  as  are  most  convenient  for  the  occasion,  without 
reference  to  cost,  etc.  Pipes  of  this  character  are  usually 
made  in  the  most  approved  fashion  by  skilled  moulders 
who  work  by  the  day ;  while  the  regular  trade  straight 
lengths  are  made,  as  a  rule,  by  unskilled  labor,  in  vertical 
casings  that  are  so  elaborately  mounted  as  to  preclude  any 
possibility  of  going  astray.  See  CAST-IRON  PIPES  ;  JOB- 
BING-MOULDER. 

Joint. — A  common  name  for  the  point  of  separation  in 
moulds.  When  two  halves  of  a  core  are  placed  together 
the  joining  surfaces  form  the  joint ;  so  in  flasks  cope  and 
drag  meet  together  at  the  joint.  See  PARTING. 

Joint-board. — See  MATCH-BOARD  ;  PARTING. 

Journal-box  Metal.— See  ANTI-FRICTION  METALS  ; 
BABBITT  METAL  ;  BRASS. 

K. 

Kaolin. — A  pure  white  clay  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  feldspar  in  granitic  rocks.  The  materials  em- 
ployed by  the  Chinese  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain 
are  known  to  be  kaolin,  petuntze,  or  quartz  reduced  to  a 
fine  powder;  and  the  ashes  of  fern,  which  contain  potassic 
carbonate. 

Kaolin  is  used  extensively  for  the  manufacture  of  clay 
crucibles  for  steel  melting,  being  mixed  with  equal  quan- 
tities of  Stourbridge  clay  and  some  old  pot  and  coke-dust. 
See  CRUCIBLE;  FELDSPAR. 

Kara-Kane.  —  The  name  given  by  the  Japanese  to 
their  celebrated  bronze  mixtures  for  bells.  See  JAPANESE 
BRONZE-WORK. 


Keep's  Testing-machine. 


22' 


Kiln. 


Keep's  Testing  -  machine.  —  See  TESTING-MA- 
CHINES. 


Keim's  Water-jacketed  Cupola.— See  WATER- 
JACKETED  CUPOLA. 

Kettle. — A  vessel  of  iron  or  other  metal  used  for  the 
purpose  of  heating  or  boiling  liquids,  or  melting  metals. 
The  common  method  of  moulding  a  kettle  with  the  spindle 
and  sweep-board  is  to  first  strike  a  core,  answering  to  the 
inside,  upon  a  foundation-plate  ;  then  strike  a  sand  thick- 
ness over  it  corresponding  to  the  outside,  the  impression  of 
which  is  taken  in  the  cope  built  on  a  surrounding  cope- 
ring  that  bears  the  whole  outside  structure.  After  separa- 
tion, the  thickness  is  removed  and  moulds  finished,  when 
the  cope  is  returned  to  its  place,  and,  after  due  prepara- 
tion, the  space  is  filled  with  molten  metal. 

The  following  table  shows  the  weight  of  spherically 
shaped  kettles  when  the  depth  is  equal  to  half  the  diameter 
of  core,  and  one  inch  thick : 


Inside  di- 
ameter in 
inches. 

36 

590 

42 

48 

54 

60 

1570 

66 

72 
2237 

78 

84 

90 

96 

102 

108 

114 

120 

Weight 
in  pounds. 

791 

1022 

1281 

1889 

2614 

3021 

3457 

3923 

4418 

4492 

5496 

6079 

See  SPINDLE;  SWEEP-BOARD;  FOUNDATION-PLATE  ;  COPE- 
KING;  THICKNESS;  CASING. 

Kiln. — An  oven  or  stove  which  may  be  heated  for  the 
purpose  of  drying,  hardening,  or  burning  anything.  Kilns 
are  used  for  roasting  or  calcining  iron  ores,  with  the  view 
of  expelling  water,  sulphur,  and  volatile  or  other  matters 
which  under  the  influence  of  heat,  or  the  combined  action 
of  heat  and  atmospheric  air,  are  capable  of  volatilization, 
and  to  free  the  ore  from  these  constituents  and  leave  it 


Kish.  228  Lacquering. 

porous;  in  which  condition  it  is  more  readily  acted  upon 
by  the  flame  and  gases  of  the  blast-furnace.  See  CAL- 
CINATION; WEATHERING  ORES. 

Kish. — When  rich  gray  iron  in  a  state  of  fusion  is  per- 
mitted to  cool  very  slowly,  a  graphitic  substance,  resembling 
plumbago,  gradually  separates  itself  from  the  molten  mass. 
This  substance  is  called  kisli,  and  is  composed  of  carbon, 
sulphur,  and  manganese  in  varying  proportions.  This  phe- 
nomenon evidences  the  inability  of  the  metal  to  hold  as 
much  carbon,  etc.,  in  solution  at  a  low  temperature  as  at  a 
greater  heat.  The  same  metal,  if  run  into  moulds  at  a  greater 
heat,  and  allowed  to  solidify  rapidly,  would  retain  the  most 
of  this  carbon  either  in  the  graphitic  or  combined  state,  or 
both.  See  GRAPHITE  IN  PIG-IRON;  CAST  IRON. 

Krupp's  Crucibles  for  Steel. — See  CRUCIBLES. 

Kustitien's  Tinning  Metal.— Malleable  iron  1 
pound;  heat  to  whiteness;  add  5  ounces  of  antimony,  and 
tin  24  pounds.  See  TINNING. 

L. 

Laboratory, — A  place  where  operations  and  experi- 
ments in  chemistry,  pharmacy,  pyrotechny,  etc.,  are  per- 
formed. 

Lac. — See  SHELL-LAC. 

Lace  Impressions  on  Cast  Iron.  —  See  EM- 
BROIDERY IMPRESSIONS  ON  CAST  IRON  ;  HANDWRITING 
IMPRESSIONS  ON  CAST  IRON. 

Lacquering.— Lacquers  are  varnishes  applied  upon 
brass,  tin,  and  other  metals  to  prevent  them  from  tarnish- 


Lacquering.  229  Lacquering. 

ing,  and  should  always  be  applied  soon  after  the  process  of 
bronzing  or  dipping.  Their  basis  is  a  solution  of  seed-lac 
in  alcohol.  About  3  ounces  of  powdered  shell-lac  are  added 
to  a  pint  of  the  spirit,  and  the  mixture  allowed  to  digest 
with  a  moderate  heat.  The  liquor,  after  being  cleared  by 
settling,  is  strained  and  poured  off,  and  is  then  ready 
to  receive  the  required  coloring  substances,  the  chief  of 
which  are  annotto,  dragon's-blood,  gamboge,  saffron,  and 
turmeric. 

If  the  brass  or  other  metal  to  be  lacquered  be  old  and 
dirty,  make  a  strong  lye  of  wood-ashes,  which  may  be 
strengthened  by  soap-lees;  put  in  the  old  brass-work,  and 
the  original  lacquer  and  dirt  will  fall  off.  It  must  then  be 
immersed  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  acid  and  water  strong 
enough  to  eradicate  the  dirt ;  after  which,  wash  in  clean 
water,  and  it  is  ready  for  the  lacquer.  If  the  work  is 
new,  take  off  the  dust  and  polish  with  chamois  leather 
before  applying,  the  lacquer.  The  work  to  be  lacquered 
must  be  subjected  to  a  moderate  heat;  then,  holding  it  in 
the  pincers,  apply  the  preparation  with  a  soft  brush,  tak- 
ing pains  to  cover  the  whole  surface  by  a  gentle  pressure 
of  the  brush  in  one  direction.  The  following  are  some 
mixtures  for  lacquers  : 

Gold  Lacquer. — Seed-lac,  3  ounces ;  turmeric,  1  ounce  ; 
dragonVblood,  J  ounce  ;  alcohol,  1  pint.  Digest  for  a 
week,  frequently  shaking  ;  decant  and  filter. 

Dark  Gold  Lacquer. — Strongest  alcohol,  4  ounces;  Span- 
ish annotto,  8  grains  ;  powdered  turmeric,  2  drams;  red- 
sanders,  12  grains.  Infuse  and  add  shell-lac,  etc.,  and 
when  dissolved  add  30  drops  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Brass  Lacquer. — Shell-lac,  8  ounces;  sandarac,  2  ounces; 
annotto,  2  ounces;  dragon's-blood,  J  ounce;  spirits  of  wine, 
1  gallon. 

Bronzed  Dipped  Work. — Alcohol,  12  gallons  ;  seed-lac,  9 


Lacquering.  230  Lacquering. 

pounds;  turmeric,  1  pound  to  the  gallon;  Spanish  saffron, 
4  ounces.  If  for  a  light  lacquer,  the  saffron  may  he  omitted. 

Tin-plate  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  8  ounces;  turmeric,  4 
drams;  hay-saffron,  2  scruples;  dragon's-blood,  4  scruples; 
red-sanders,  1  scruple;  shell-lac,  1  ounce;  gum-sandarac,  2 
drams  ;  gum-mastic,  2  drams  ;  Canada  balsam,  2  drams; 
when  dissolved  add  spirits  of  turpentine,  80  drops. 

Iron  Lacquer. — Amber,  12;  turpentine,  12;  resin,  2; 
asphaltum,  2;  drying  oil,  6. 

Iron  Lacquer. — Asphaltum,  3  pounds;  shell-lac,  J  pound ; 
turpentine,  1  gallon. 

Red  Lacquer. — Spirits  of  wine,  2  gallons;  dragon Vblood, 
1  pound  ;  Spanish  annotto,  3  pounds ;  gum-sandarac,  4J 
pounds;  turpentine,  2  pints.  Made  as  pale  brass  lacquer. 

Pale  Brass  Lacquer. — Spirits  of  wine,  2  gallons  ;  Cape 
aloes,  3  ounces;  fine  pale  shell-lac,  1  pound;  gamboge  (cut 
small),  1  ounce.  Digest  for  a  week,  shake  frequently,  de- 
cant, and  filter. 

Pale  Tin  Lacquer. — Strongest  alcohol,  4  ounces ;  pow- 
dered turmeric,  2  drams;  hay-saffron,  1  scruple  ;  dragon's- 
blood  in  powder,  2  scruples  ;  red-sanders,  -J  scruple.  In- 
fuse this  mixture  in  the  cold  for  48  hours,  pour  off  the 
clear  and  strain  the  rest ;  then  add  powdered  shell-lac,  } 
ounce;  sandarac,  1  dram;  mastic,  1  dram;  Canada  balsam, 
1  dram.  Dissolve  this  in  the  cold  by  frequent  agitation, 
laying  the  bottle  on  its  side  to  present  a  greater  surface  to 
the  alcohol.  When  dissolved,  add  40  drops  of  spirits  of 
turpentine. 

Lacquers  of  Various  Tints. — To  32  ounces  of  spirits  of 
turpentine  add  4  ounces  of  the  best  gum-gamboge,  to 
the  same  quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine  add  4  ounces  of 
dragon's-blood,  and  to  8  ounces  of  the  same  spirits  add 
1  ounce  of  annotto.  The  three  mixtures,  made  in  separate 
vessels,  should  be  kept  warm,  and  as  much  as  possible  in 


Ladles.  231  Ladles. 

the  sun,  for  three  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  they  will 
be  fit  for  use  ;  and  any  desired  tints  may  be  obtained  by 
making  a  composition  from  them  with  such  proportions  of 
each  liquor  as  the  nature  of  the  colors  desired  will  point 
out. 

Ladles.  —  The  business  of  making  foundry  ladles  has, 
virtually,  been  monopolized  by  the  numerous  manufactur- 
ers of  these  and  other  foundry  supplies,  who  are  ready  to 
supply  every  description  of  ladle  at  prices  astoundingly 
lower  than  is  possible  for  private  firms  to  produce  them  — 
from  a  small  hand-ladle  holding  35  pounds,  to  the  more 
ponderous  ones  that  are  controlled  with  the  greatest  ease 
by  improved  devices,  making  it  possible  to  operate  with 
the  minimum  of  help  even  the  largest  ones. 

The  following  table  gives  depth  and  diameter,  inside  the 
lining,  of  ladles  to  hold  from  50  pounds  to  16  tons  : 
Capacity.  Diameter.  Depth. 

56  inches. 
53  " 
50  " 
48  " 
44  « 
40  " 
35  " 
32  " 
28  " 
22  " 
17  " 


16 

tons  

54  inct 

14 

"  

52   " 

12 

"  

49   " 

10 

"  

....  46   " 

8 

tt 

43   " 

6 

«, 

....  39   " 

4 

"  

....  34   " 

3 

(f 

....  31   " 

2 

u 

....  27   " 

1 

a 

....22   " 

i 

(C 

....  17   " 

i 

tt 

....  13J  " 

300  pounds  

....  11J  " 

200 

"   

.  ...  10   " 

100 

u 

....  8   « 

50 

"  

6J  " 

25 

(( 

5   " 

See  LIP. 

10J 


Lake  Ore-iron.  232  lead. 

Lake  Ore-iron. — Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  is  de- 
posited in  large  quantities  by  certain  lakes  in  Sweden  and 
Norway.  It  is  similar  in  composition  to  the  bog  iron-ore 
found  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  See  BOG  IRON-ORE. 

Lamellar. — Consisting  of  thin  or  extended  plates, 
layers,  or  scales;  distributed  or  disposed  in  thin,  filmy 
processes. 

Lampblack  consists  of  a  very  fine  description  of 
infinitely  divided  charcoal.  It  is  commonly  made  by  heat- 
ing in  an  iron  vessel  vegetable  matters  rich  in  carbon,  in- 
cluding tar  and  resins,  the  vapors  of  which  are  burnt  in  a 
current  of  air  insufficient  for  complete  combustion;  conse- 
quently the  hydrogen  burns  away  and  leaves  the  carbon 
behind  in  a  finely  divided  condition  on  the  walls  of  the 
chamber,  which  are  hung  with  coarse  cloths.  Lampblack 
thus  obtained  invariably  contains  more  or  less  unburnt 
resinous  or  fatty  matters.  When  it  is  required  to  obtain  a 
small  quantity  of  very  fine  lampblack,  it  may  be  done  by 
holding  a  cold  plate  over  a  common  gas  flame  until  suffi- 
cient has  been  deposited.  See  CARBON;  CHARCOAL. 

Lantern. — A  term  applied  to  a  temporary  drying  ap- 
paratus for  moulds  during  their  course  of  construction.  It 
is  oftentimes  called  a  lam.p  or  drying-kettle.  See  DRYING- 
KETTLE. 

Lapidary.— One  who  cuts,  polishes,  or  engraves  gems 
or  precious  stones.  See  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Lead. — Ores  of  lead  occur  in  great  abundance  in  al- 
most all  parts  of  the  world.  They  are  generally  in  veins, 
sometimes  in  siliceous  rocks,  sometimes  in  calcareous  rocks. 
Abundant  Scripture  testimony  proves  the  existence  of  this 


lead.  233  Lead. 

metal  in  olden  times,  and  we  are  informed  that  the  Ro- 
mans used  sheet-lead  in  the  manufacture  of  water-pipes. 
The  metal  is  very  heavy  but  soft,  is  of  a  bluish-gray  color, 
of  great  brilliancy.  The  specific  gravity  of  lead  is  11.35, 
and  it  melts  at  617°.  Almost  all  the  lead  of  commerce  is 
obtained  from  galena  (sulphide  of  lead).  It  is  then  pickled, 
broken,  and  washed,  and  afterwards  roasted,  to  eliminate 
the  sulphur.  Lead  is  an  important  metal  in  the  arts. 
Rolled  into  sheets  it  is  used  for  roofing  houses,  for  cis- 
terns and  pipes.  It  is  also  of  great  service  in  the  con- 
struction of  large  chambers  for  the  manufacture  of  sul- 
phuric acid;  its  value  for  making  shot  is  well  known. 

Lead  enters  into  many  very  useful  alloys,  as  with  bis- 
muth for  fusible  alloys,  with  antimony  for  type-metal,  with 
arsenic  for  shot,  with  tin  for  pewter  and  solders,  with 
copper  for  pot-metal — for  which  compound  it  cannot  be 
used  more  than  one  half  lead,  as  it  separates  in  cooling. 
With  zinc  it  will  scarcely  unite,  but  their  union  may  be 
brought  about  by  a  small  proportion  of  arsenic.  Many  of 
the  numerous  alloys  for  mechanical  and  other  purposes  are 
improved  by  certain  proportions  of  lead,  and  very  few 
mixtures  but  may  be  made  more  fusible,  malleable,  and 
sharper  in  the  cast  by  a  slight  addition  of  this  metal ;  but 
with  gold  it  forms  an  alloy  of  extreme  brittleness  ;  J  of  a 
grain  of  lead  will  render  an  ounce  of  gold  perfectly  brittle, 
although  both  gold  and  lead  are  such  soft  and  ductile 
metals.  The  ductility  of  copper  at  any  temperature  is 
impaired  by  the  use  of  lead.  Alloyed  with  silver,  the 
metals  will  separate  if  slowly  cooled  from  the  melting 
point.  It  does  not  appear  that  cast  iron  and  lead  alloys 
will  answer  any  useful  purpose. 

Of  the  compounds  of  lead  other  than  alloys  we  have 
white-lead  or  carbonate  of  lead,  and  red-lead  or  red  oxide 
of  lead,  the  latter  being  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
flint-glass  and  porcelain. 


lead-ladle.  234  Leaf  Gold. 

The  various  alloys  of  which  lead  forms  a  component 
part  will  be  found  under  the  following  heads  :  FUSIBLE 
ALLOYS;  TYPE-METAL;  LEAD-SHOT;  PEWTER;  SOLDER; 
POT-METAL;  BISMUTH;  ANTIMONY;  ARSENIC;  TIN;  COP- 
PER; ALLOYS;  BRASS;  ANTI-FRICTION  METALS  ;  WHITE- 
LEAD  ;  RED-LEAD. 

Lead-ladle. — Ladles  for  melting  and  pouring  lead 
may  be  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  of  any  dimension  or  form 
best  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

Lead-pipe.— See  SHEET  LEAD. 

Lead-shot.— The  common  method  of  making  small 
lead-shot  is  as  follows  :  The  melted  lead  is  made  to  fall 
through  the  air  from  a  considerable  elevation,  and  thus 
leaden  rain,  as  it  were,  is  solidified  into  leaden  hail  or  shot. 
The  tower  in  which  the  manufacture  takes  place  is  about 
180  feet  high,  30  feet  diameter  at  the  base,  and  15  feet  at 
the  top.  The  melting  is  conducted  at  the  top  in  brick 
furnaces  built  against  the  wall,  the  lead  is  rained  down 
from  a  colander,  through  a  central  opening  into  a  water- 
tank  below.  The  size  of  the  shot  is  regulated  by  the  mesh 
of  the  colander,  the  latter  being  a  hollow  hemisphere  of 
sheet  iron  about  10  inches  in  diameter.  When  the  shot 
are  taken  out  of  the  water  they  are  dried  upon  metal-plates, 
that  are  heated  by  steam,  and  the  imperfect  ones  are  sepa- 
rated from  those  that  are  spherical. 

The  addition  of  a  slight  proportion  of  arsenic  to  the  lead 
used  for  shot  helps  it  to  solidify,  as  well  as  rendering  it 
more  fluid. 

The  alloy  for  lead-shot  is  lead  56,  arsenic  1.  See  LEAD; 
ARSENIC;  HOLLOW-SHOT. 

Leaf  Gold.— See  GOLD. 


Level.  235  Leva*. 

Level  is  an  instrument  used  to  discover  a  line  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  and  to  continue  it  at  pleasure.  Water-level 
shows  this  horizontal  line  by  means  of  a  surface  of  water  or 
other  fluid,  found  on  the  principle  that  water  always  places 
itself  level  or  horizontally. 

The  common  mason's  level  consists  of  a  long  parallel 
straight-edged  ruler,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  fitted,  at 
right  angles,  another  broader  one,  at  the  top  of  which  is 
suspended  a  plummet,  which,  when  it  hangs  over  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  upright  piece,  shows  that  the  base  or  horizon- 
tal ruler  is  level.  The  spirit-level  in  common  use  amongst 
moulders  has  brass  side-views,  brass  top,  and  end-plates  and 
corners,  protected  by  i-inch-square  rods  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  rosewood  staff.  The  tube,  which  con- 
tains alcohol,  is  slightly  curved,  and  the  straight  edge  of  the 
instrument  is  tangent  to  it.  For  instructions  to  level  a  bed 
on  the  foundry  floor,  see  BED. 

Lever. — The  lever  is  the  simplest  of  all  machines,  and 
is  only  a  straight  bar  of  iron,  wood,  or  other  material,  sup- 
ported on  and  movable  round  a  prop  called  the  fulcrum, 
and  having  the  weight  to  be  moved  and  the  power  to  move 
it  applied  at  two  other  points.  The  law  is  that  the  poiver 
and  weight  are  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  their  distances  from 
the  fulcrum.  This  is  equally  true  for  straight  or  bent 
levers,  and  holds  good  whatever  be  the  relative  positions 
of  the  power,  weight,  and  fulcrum  ;  and  as  there  can  be 
three  different  arrangements  of  these,  we  thus  obtain  what 
are  called  the  three  kinds  of  levers.  The  first  kind  is 
where  the  fulcrum  is  placed  between  the  power  and  the 
weight;  levers  of  the  second  kind  are  those  in  which  the 
weight  is  betwixt  the  power  and  the  fulcrum;  in  levers  of 
the  third  kind  the  power  is  betwixt  the  weight  and  the 
fulcrum.  To  produce  equilibrium  in  levers  of  the  first 
kind,  the  power  may,  according  to  the  ratio  of  the  lengths 


tevigation.  236  Lighting  the  Cupola. 

of  the  arm,  be  either  greater  or  less  than  the  weight:  in 
the  second  kind  it  must  always  be  less,  and  in  the  third 
kind  always  greater. 

Levigatioii.— See  TRITURATION. 

Lift. — When  two  parts  of  a  flask  are  separated  the 
operation  is  called  lifting.  Should  the  separation  be  a 
clean  one,  it  is  termed  a  good  lift,  and  a  bad  lift  if  much 
repairing  is  necessary.  When  the  parting  extends  much 
below  the  joint,  it  is  then  a  deep  lift.  See  GAGGERS  ; 
CHOCKS  ;  PARTING. 

Lifter.— See  CLEANER. 

Lifting-tongs. — A  form  of  tongs  with  which  to  lift 
a  crucible  out  of  the  furnace.  They  should  always  be 
strong,  and  of  various  sizes,  so  that  each  crucible  has  its 
own  tongs  which  grips  it  closely  all  round.  For  large  cruci- 
bles it  is  preferable  to  clasp  them  above  and  below  with 
tongs  that  have  double  prongs,  and  an  eye  should  be  forged 
on  the  end  of  one  leg.  By  this  means  a  small  crane  may 
be  employed  for  hoisting  out  the  crucible  when  full  of 
metal, — a  readier  and  much  safer  method  than  struggling 
to  withdraw  it  by  hand.  See  CRUCIBLE. 

Lighting  the  Cupola.— Success  in  cupola-melting 
depends,  to  some  extent,  upon  the  manner  of  starting  the 
fire.  Carelessness  in  this  particular  may  result  in  there 
being  more  or  less  of  the  fuel  in  a  semi-cold  condition  ly- 
ing upon  the  bottom  when  the  molten  iron  begins  to  fall 
from  above.  This  naturally  dulls  the  iron  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  may  exert  a  bad  effect  upon  the  heat  all 
through.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  cupola-man  to  have 
a  clear,  bright  fire  upon  the  bed  before  the  blast  is  admit- 
ted, so  that  hot  fluid  metal  will  show  at  the  first  tap.  In 


Lighting  the  Cupola.  237  Lighting  the  Cupola. 

order  to  accomplish  this,  some  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  kind  of  wood  used  for  kindling  with,  as  well  as  to  the 
manner  of  distributing  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  cupola  ; 
short  pieces  are  the  best,  as  they  can  be  arranged  with  a 
view  to  preserving  the  sand  bottom  intact ;  and,  whilst  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  preserve  a  good  free  passage  for  air, 
yet  it  is  well  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible,  any  of  the 
coal  or  coke  from  falling  to  the  bottom  before  it  has  become 
thoroughly  ignited.  If  old  wood  is  used,  let  it  be  freed 
from  every  particle  of  sand,  otherwise  a  slaggy  bottom  is 
the  result  from  the  start.  Nails,  spikes,  and  other  malle- 
able-iron fastenings,  usually  so  plentiful  in  old  foundry 
chips  and  lumber,  should  be  carefully  extracted  before  such 
wood  is  used  for  kindling  with,  as  if  left  in  any  consider- 
able quantity  the  nature  of  the  iron  is  changed  for  a  length 
of  time  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  wrought  iron  intro- 
duced. Dirty  kindling-wood  and  rusty  nails  have  much  to 
answer  for  at  some  foundries.  Intelligent  operation  will 
soon  discover  just  how  much  wood  is  needed  to  thoroughly 
ignite  the  coal  or  coke,  so  that  only  enough  is  used;  any 
addition  to  this  is  wilful  waste.  For  igniting  coal,  more 
wood  will  be  required  than  for  coke,  and  a  little  more  time 
must  be  allowed  for  kindling  a  coal-stock.  Whilst  it  is 
very  important  that  the  bed  fuel  be  thoroughly  ignited 
before  the  charging  begins,  it  is  not  by  any  means  a  wise 
method  to  permit  the  stock  to  become  white-hot  before 
introducing  the  first  charge  of  iron  ;  when  once  it  is  sure 
that  the  fire  has  spread  evenly  all  through  the  fuel,  and  is 
about  to  strike  through  the  top,  the  iron  may  then  be 
charged.  By  this  means  the  heat,  which  in  the  former 
case  escapes  uninterrupted  up  the  stack,  is  utilized  for 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  iron  charged  before  it  has 
reached  the  melting-point,  the  result  being  quicker  melting 
and  hotter  metal.  See  CUPOLA;  HOOD;  CHARGING  THE 
COMMON  CUPOLA. 


Lime.  238  Limestone  flux. 

Lime. — Lime  is  found  in  every  part  of  the  known 
world,  the  purest  kinds  being  limestone,  marble,  and  chalk. 
None  of  these  substances  however  are  lime,  but  are  capa- 
ble of  becoming  so  by  burning  in  a  white  heat.  Pure  lime 
may  also  be  obtained  by  dissolving  oyster-shells  in  muriatic 
acid.  See  LIMESTONE  ;  MARBLE  ;  CHALK  ;  LIME-KILN  ; 
FLUX  ;  OYSTER-SHELLS. 

Lime-kiln. — An  oven  or  a  pit,  built  of  brick,  with  an 
interior  lining  of  fire-brick.  Intermittent  kilns  are  such  as 
have  the  fuel  on  the  bottom  and  the  stone  above  it,  making 
it  necessary  to  withdraw  every  charge.  Running  kilns  are 
usually  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone,  and  are  charged 
with  alternate  layers  of  fuel  and  stone,  so  that  the  lime  is 
withdrawn  at  the  bottom  as  it  is  burned,  fresh  fuel  and 
stone  being  constantly  served  at  the  top. 

The  process  of  burning  expels  the  water  and  carbonic- 
acid  gas  from  the  stone,  which  falls  to  pieces  on  exposure 
to  the  air  after  removal  from  the  kiln,  and  crumbles  into  a 
white  flaky  powder  which  is  called  quicklime,  or  slaked 
lime,  and  is  possessed  of  highly  caustic  properties.  See 
LIMESTONE  ;  LIME. 

Limestone. — The  name  given  to  all  rocks  which  are 
composed  to  a  great  extent  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  chief 
varieties  of  limestone  are  chalk  ;  oolite,  compact  limestone 
of  the  hard,  smooth,  fine-grained  rock,  of  a  bluish-gray 
color;  crystalline  limestone;  and  statuary  marble.  Mag- 
nesian  limestone  or  dolomite  is  a  rock  in  which  carbonate 
of  magnesia  is  mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime.  See  DOLO- 
MITE. 

Limestone-flux. — When  the  blast-furnace  is  in 
operation  it  is  regularly  fed  with  definite  proportions  of 
fuel,  ore,  and  broken  limestone.  The  latter  is  added  as  a 


Lining  Ladles.  239        •  Liquid  Bronze. 

flux  to  render  the  iron  more  fusible,  and,  by  combining 
with  the  impurities  in  the  ore,  prevent  the  formation  of 
compounds  containing  iron,  thus  effecting  a  saving  of 
metal.  See  CAST  IRON;  FLUX;  SLAG;  ORE. 

Lining  Ladles. — The  process  of  daubing  loam  or 
ramming  sand  on  the  inner  surface  to  protect  them  from 
the  action  of  the  molten  metal. 

All  ladles  above  8  tons  capacity  should  have  a  fire-brick 
lining  all  through  ;  below  this,  if  the  ]adle  bottom  is  per- 
forated to  let  out  the  steam,  a  fire-sand  bottom,  rammed 
over  one  inch  in  depth  of  fine  cinders,  will  serve,  one  inch 
of  daubing  being  sufficient  for  the  sides.  See  DAUBING; 
INGOTS  ;  LADLES. 

Lining-metal  for  Journal-boxes.— See  ANTI- 
FRICTION METALS. 

Lining  of  the  Cupola. — The  inner  structure  of 
fire-bricks  built  within  the  shell  of  a  cupola  to  protect  it 
from  the  intense  heat  during  the  process  of  melting.  See 
CUPOLA;  EEPAIRING  THE  CUPOLA;  DAUBING;  FIRE-BRICK; 
GROUTING. 

Lip  is  that  part  of  a  ladle-shell  over  which  the  metal 
falls  as  the  process  of  pouring  takes  place.  To  regulate  the 
stream  of  molten  metal,  and  maintain  it  unbroken,  is  of 
great  importance  when  numbers  of  various-sized  basins 
must  be  served  from  one  ladle  ;  a  little  experimenting  will 
soon  discover  which  form  is  the  most  suitable.  See 
LADLES. 

Liqviid.— See  FLUID. 

Liquid  Bronze. — See  STAINS  FOR  METALS. 


Liquid  Fuel.  240  Loam. 

Liquid  Fuel. — Liquid  fuel,  as  petroleum,  is  used  in 
a  furnace  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose.  The  oil  is 
forced  into  the  fire-box  along  with  air  or  steam.  Some 
have  an  injection  placed  above  the  fire-door,  through  which 
the  liquid  hydrocarbon  is  introduced.  A  cock  regulates 
the  supply,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  orifice  superheated 
steam  is  associated  with  the  petroleum  at  a  temperature  of 
600°  F.  The  hot  ashes  on  the  grate-bars  receive  the  com- 
bined spray,  and  ignition  takes  place.  See  FUEL;  PETRO- 
LEUM. 

Litharge  is  the  fused  oxide  of  lead.     See  RED-LEAP. 

Lixiviatioii.  —  The  process  of  extracting  alkaline 
salts  from  ashes  by  pouring  water  on  them. 

Loadstone,  or  natural  magnet,  is  a  species  of  iron 
ore  found  in  many  parts  of  the  earth.  Its  property  of  at- 
tracting small  pieces  of  iron  was  known  to  the  Greeks  at 
an  early  date,  and  the  Chinese  have  been  acquainted  with 
its  wonderful  directive  power  from  very  remote  ages. 
When  this  wonderful  ore  has  been  carefully  examined,  it 
is  found  that  some  points  possess  greater  magnetic  force 
than  others.  The  attractive  points  are  the  poles  of  the 
magnet,  which,  if  rubbed  in  a  particular  manner  on  a 
hardened  steel  bar,  its  characteristic  properties  will  be 
communicated  to  the  bar,  which  will  then  attract  filings 
like  itself;  particularly  is  this  the  case  with  the  two  ends 
of  the  bar.  The  bar  is  then  said  to  be  magnetized.  For 
general  purposes  these  bars  are  bent  in  the  form  of  a  horse- 
shoe, which  admits  of  the  two  poles  being  brought  into 
contact  with  the  object  to  be  lifted.  See  MAGNET. 

Loam. — Foundry  loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand  with  clay 
and  some  form  of  venting  medium. 

Refractory  fire-sands  suitable  for  loam  are  of  themselves 


Loam-board.  241  Loam-board. 

too  friable  to  form  a  compact,  hard  body.  Clay  is  there- 
fore added  to  impart  adhesiveness,  with  some  accompany- 
ing substance,  as  manure,  etc.,  to  counteract  its  imporous 
quality,  and  leave  the  mixture  when  dry  a  hard,  unyield- 
ing substance,  that  is  permeated  with  countless  small  holes 
through  which  the  surface  gas  finds  its  way  to  the  exterior. 

The  proportion  of  clay  employed  must  be  regulated  by 
the  class  of  castings  the  loam  is  for. 

The  following  mixtures  are  for  ordinary  use  in  almost 
any  foundry,  and  any  sands  which  approximate  in  their 
nature  to  the  general  run  of  Jersey,  fire,  and  moulding 
sands  will  answer.  If  the  castings  are  unusually  light,  as 
thin  plate  castings  in  loam,  the  clay-water  should  be  pro- 
portionately thinner. 

Hand-made  Loam  for  Loam-moulds  and  Core-barrels. — 
Fire-sand,  5  ;  moulding-sand,  2  ;  horse-manure,  1^.  Mix 
with  thick  clay-water. 

Mill-made  Loam  for  Loam-moulds  and  Core-barrels. — 
Fire-sand,  7 ;  moulding-sand,  2  ;  horse-manure,  2.  Mix 
with  thick  clay-water,  and  grind  no  longer  than  is  neces- 
sary to  mix  the  ingredients  intimately  together.  See 

HORSE-MANURE  ;   VENTING  ;   FACING-SAND;   LOAM-MILL. 

Loam-board  is  a  technical  term  for  any  strickle, 
strike,  sweep,  or  templet,  so  called,  that  may  be  employed 
for  forming  some  part  of  a  mould  in  loam;  whether  it  be 
drawn  along  by  the  hands  of  a  moulder  horizontally,  as 
for  a  pipe,  attached  to  a  centre-spindle  to  form  circular 
moulds  vertically,  or  be  secured  fast  whilst  the  mould  or 
core  rotates  past  it,  as  for  cores,  both  horizontal  and 
vertical. 

Such  boards  should  be  bevelled  on  the  edge,  using  the 
sharp  edge  for  roughing  up  and  the  opposite  way  for  skin- 
ning. See  SWEEP-BOARD  ;  ROUGHING-UP  ;  STRICKLE  ; 
LOAM. 


Loam-bricks.  242  Loam-mill. 

Loam-bricks  are  made  in  cast-iron  moulds.  The 
moulds  being  set  on  a  smooth  plate  in  the  oven  are  filled 
with  stiff  loam  and  allowed  to  remain  until  dry.  They  are 
then  useful  for  fashioning  into  cores  with  the  saw  and  file, 
or  may  be  used  for  building  in  parts  where,  on  account  of 
their  rigidity,  the  ordinary  bricks  would  interfere  with 
the  free  contraction  of  the  casting.  The  loam-bricks, 
being  less  rigid,  yield  readily  to  the  pressure.  See  LOAM. 

Loam-cake. — Flat  cores,  made  by  simply  spreading 
loam  of  a  stiff  nature  on  a  plate  in  the  oven.  They  may 
be  made  any  thickness  desired,  and  strengthened  by  thrust- 
ing within  the  mass  a  few  iron  rods.  These  cakes  make 
excellent  covering  cores.  See  LOAM. 

Loam-mill  is  any  contrivance  for  mixing  well  to- 
gether the  .ingredients  of  which  loam  is  composed.  The 
object  is  not  so  much  to  grind  to  a  fine  consistency  as  it  is 
to  thoroughly  mix  the  clay  and  manure  with  the  sand,  so 
that  every  portion  of  the  loam  may  be  alike  open  in  its  na- 
ture. If  the  loam  is  ground  too  much  by  very  heavy  roll- 
ers, the  clay  becomes  too  intimately  incorporated  with  the 
overground  sand,  the  grains  of  which  have  been  crushed 
into  fine  powder,  resulting  in  a  pasty  mass  which,  when  it 
yields  its  water,  shrinks  on  the  surface  of  the  mould,  leav- 
ing cavities  and  cracks  which  are  difficult  to  correct,  and 
always  leave  a  map-like  appearance  on  the  casting.  By 
retaining  as  much  as  possible  the  original  coarseness  of 
the  ingredients  the  shrinkage  spoken  of  is  distributed 
equally  throughout  the  surface,  and  is  not  noticed  at  all. 
Another  evil  which  attends  the  use  of  all  over-ground  loam 
is,  that,  being  less  porous,  the  gases  generated  by  the  molten 
metal  have  greater  difficulty  in  escaping  in  a  legitimate 
manner,  and  hence  force  their  way  into  the  mould,  creat- 
ing great  commotion,  and  sometimes  carrying  off  portions 


Loam-moulding.  243  Loam-patterns. 

of  the  mould  surface,  making  scabs.     See  LOAM  ;  VENT- 
ING. 

Loam  •  moulding.  —  Loam-moulding  differs  from 
sand-moulding  in  that  the  moulds  proper  are  not  contained 
in  flasks,  or  bedded  in  the  floor,  but  are  constructed  in  sec- 
tions composed  of  rings,  plates,  and  brickwork.  Another 
chief  difference  is  that  sand-moulds  are  simply  impressions 
of  a  model  that  is  furnished  by  the  pattern-maker,  whilst 
loam-moulds  are  in  some  measure  the  handiwork  of  the 
moulder  himself,  unaided  by  the  pattern-maker  in  many 
instances. 

There  are  instances  where  of  necessity  the  operations 
necessary  for  the  successful  construction  of  a  high-class 
loam-mould  must  include  the  three  chief  systems  com- 
bined, viz.,  pattern,  strickle,  and  spindle,  with  ample  op- 
portunity throughout  the  task  for  supplementing  these 
systems  by  a  nicety  of  touch  which  may  be  acquired  only 
by  constant  practice  and  close  application  by  the  most  in- 
telligent moulders.  See  TOUCH  ;  GREEN-SAND  MOULD- 
ING ;  DRY-SAND  MOULDING. 

Loam-patterns. — Numerous  patterns  may  be  readi- 
ly made  from  loam  and  much  pattern  lumber  saved  thereby; 
many,  also,  may  be  made  quicker  by  this  means,  saving 
both  time  and  lumber. 

Straight  pieces  of  shafting,  pipes,  etc.,  may  be  struck  on 
a  barrel  to  the  diameter  required,  after  which  a  little  water 
blacking  will  separate  the  thickness,  which  may  be  struck 
thereon  after  drying  the  core.  Or  should  such  a  pattern 
be  required  more  than  once,  the  outside  diameter  can  be 
struck  at  once,  dried,  coated  with  tar,  and  dried  again. 
Such  a  substitute  for  the  wood  pattern  acts  very  well  in 
an  emergency. 

If  the  pipe  is  a  common  socket,  the  bead  and  socket  ends 


Lode.  244  Loosening-bar 

can  be  formed  at  once;  but  in  the  event  of  flanges  they 
must  be  placed  after  the  model  is  dry,  as  would  be  the  case 
also  if  it  were  desired  to  affix  a  branch  thereon. 

Bends  of  any  description  may  be  made  from  loam  with 
either  iron  or  wood  templets  and  a  former,  each  half  being 
first  struck  on  a  core-iron  to  the  core  size,  then  dried, 
flanges  fixed,  and  the  thickness  struck;  first  interposing 
a  thin  coat  of  water-blacking  to  separate  the  thickness 
from  the  core  after  the  mould  impression  has  been  taken. 

The  bottom  half  of  such  a  pattern  needs  a  few  brads 
driven  into  the  body,  the  heads  of  which,  protruding  some- 
what into  the  thickness,  would  prevent  the  thickness  from 
falling  off  whilst  it  was  doing  duty  for  a  pattern.  A  barrel 
core  is  thicknessed  by  wrapping  a  hay-rope  on  the  core,  and 
finishing  off  with  clay  and  loam  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
Those  unaccustomed  to  this  method  of  producing  a  pattern 
will  see  by  the  above  examples  what  the  possibilities  are 
when  the  emergency  presents  itself.  See  FORMER  ;  TEM- 
PLET ;  CORE-BARREL  ;  THICKNESS  ;  LOAM. 

Lode. — The  term  used  for  an  ore-producing  vein. 
Ore  occurs  in  either  beds  or  mineral  veins  ;  in  the  latter 
the  veins  are  invariably  found  to  have  one  of  two  or  three 
principal  directions,  being  either  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  elevation  of  the  district,  at  right  angles  to  that  direction? 
or  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  it.  The  first  are  right-running 
lodes  ;  the  second,  cross-courses  ;  and  the  third,  contra-lodes, 
or  counters.  See  ORE  ;  VEINS. 

Log. — A  term  of  wide  application  in  the  foundry,  mean- 
ing any  piece  of  blocking-timber  used  for  shoring  purposes 
or  as  a  bearing  for  flasks,  etc.  See  TRESTLE. 

Loosening-bar,  or  rapping-bar,  is  usually  a  round, 
pointed  bar  for  jarring  patterns  previous  to  lifting  off 


Low  Moor  Iron.  245  Lustre  on  Iron. 

the  cope  or  drawing  out  a  pattern.  In  the  first  instance 
the  jarring  effects  a  separation  of  the  sand  from  the  pattern 
before  the  parts  are  separated  with  the  view  of  preventing 
a  bad  lift;  in  the  latter  case  the  pattern  is  loosened  and 
made  to  draw  easier.  Rapping-plates  are,  or  should  be, 
inserted  in  the  pattern  to  receive  the  point  of  the  bar, 
which  is  then  struck  in  opposite  directions  with  a  hammer 
or  sledge.  See  RAPPING-PLATE  ;  LIFT. 

Low  Moor  Iron.  —  This  iron  is  manufactured  under 
exceptional  conditions,  as  both  ore  and  fuel  employed  for 
making  the  pig  iron  used  in  their  forges  are  of  special 
quality,  and  are  both  obtained  within  their  own  premises. 
The  ore  is  a  brown  ironstone,  containing  after  calcination 
42  per  cent  of  metal,  and  is  found  in  the  coal-measures  of 
the  neighborhood.  Even  the  limestone  used  for  flux  comes 
from  the  same  county  —  Yorkshire,  England.  See  ORES. 


(or  snug,  in  some  localities)  is  an  extension-piece 
cast  on  loam-plates  for  the  purpose  of  handling  and  lifting 
by  whatever  method  is  in  vogue.  Some  have  staples  of 
wrought  iron  cast  in  them  to  receive  a  hook,  others  again 
have  simply  a  hole  in  the  lug  for  that  object  but  unless 
required  for  some  special  reason,  a  plain  lug  is  amply  suf- 
ficient when  chains  or  slings  are  used  for  lifting  with.  See 
SNUG;  PIN  AND  COTTER. 

Lustre  is  the  brightness  on  the  outer  surface  of  a 
mineral,  or  in  the  interior  when  newly  broken,  as  in  pig 
iron,  etc.  When  it  can  be  seen  plain  at  a  distance,  it  is  then 
termed  splendent  ;  if  weak,  shining  ;  when  the  lustre  is  to 
be  seen  only  at  arm's  length,  glistening  ;  and  glimmering 
when  it  must  be  held  close  to  see  the  shining  points.  When 
the  surface  is  without  lustre  it  is  termed  dull. 

Lustre  on  Iron.  —  See  IRON-LUSTRE. 


Mackenzie  Blower.  246  Magnesium 


M. 

Mackenzie  Blower.— The  fan-blades  in  this  blower 
are  supported  by  a  shaft,  and  caused  to  revolve  by  the 
revolutions  of  a  cylinder  contained  in  the  shell.  The  fan- 
blades  are  loosely  joined  to  the  shaft  and  arranged  so  that 
they  adapt  themselves  to  a  continuous  alteration  of  the 
angle  as  they  pass  through  the  cylinder.  Half-rolls  in  the 
cylinder  act  as  guides  for  the  fan-blades,  allowing  them  to 
work  smoothly  in  and  out  as  the  cylinder  revolves.  At 
each  revolution  the  entire  space  back  of  the  cylinder  be- 
tween two  blades  is  filled  and  emptied  three  times,  that 
being  the  number  of  blades  contained.  See  BLOWER. 

Mackenzie  Cupola. — The  Mackenzie  cupola  has  a 
continuous  tuyere,  which  allows  the  blast  to  enter  the  fuel 
at  all  points.  Each  size  is  proportioned  to  melt  a  given 
quantity  of  iron  in  a  certain  time.  Above  one  ton  per 
hour  melting  capacity  they  are  made  oval  in  form.  This 
construction  brings  the  blast  to  the  centre  of  the  furnace 
with  the  least  possible  resistance  and,  it  is  claimed,  tho 
smallest  amount  of  power,  causing  a  complete  diffusion  of 
air  and  a  uniform  temperature.  The  sizes  of  the  cupolas 
indicate  the  melting  capacity  per  hour;  that  is,  a  No.  1 
melts  1  ton  per  hour ;  No.  6,  6  tons  ;  and  so  on  with  all 
sizes.  See  CUPOLA  ;  BLOWER. 

Magnesium  is  a  very  brilliant  metal  of  almost  silvery 
whiteness.  It  is  more  brittle  than  silver  at  an  ordinary 
temperature,  but  becomes  malleable  at  something  below  a 
red  heat.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.74.  It  melts  at  a  bright- 
red  heat,  and  volatilizes  at  nearly  the  same  temperature  as 
zinc.  In  dry  air  its  lustre  is  retained,  but  a  crust  of  mag- 
nesia forms  on  its  surface  when  subjected  to  a  moist  air. 


Magnesian  Limestone.  247  Malachite. 

Magnesium  in  the  form  of  a  wire  or  ribbon  takes  fire  at  a 
red  heat,  burning  with  a  dazzling  bluish-white  light.  The 
pure  oxide  of  magnesium  (magnesia)  is  obtained  by  ignit- 
ing the  carbonate,  but  this  is  both  a  difficult  and  expensive 
means  of  obtaining  it,  and  recourse  is  had  to  the  impure 
magnesian  limestones  found  in  Thuringia  and  in  some  parts 
of  England.  It  is  a  white  powder,  varying  in  density 
according  to  the  source  from  whence  it  is  obtained.  It  is 
unalterable  by  heat,  and  has  never  been  fused;  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  refractoriness  is  valuable  as  an  ingredient  for 
the  manufacture  of  crucibles  for  metallurgical  purposes. 
See  DOLOMITE. 

Magnesian  Limestone.— See  MAGNESIUM. 

Magnet. — There  are  two  kinds  of  magnets — natural 
and  artificial.  The  natural  magnet  is  an  iron  ore  which 
has  the  property  of  attracting  to  itself  particles  of  iron  or 
steel.  If  suspended,  it  takes  a  north  and  south  direction, 
and  it  is  from  this  particular  leading  property  that  it  is 
called  leadstone  or  loadstone.  The  magnet  (magnet  in 
Greek)  is  supposed  to  have  received  its  name  from  Magne- 
sia, in  Asia  Minor,  where  iu  was  first  discovered.  See 
LOADSTONE. 

Magnetite  is  a  magnetic  iron  ore,  or  oxidulated  iron. 
It  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  important  ores  of  iron, 
and  produces  the  finest  brands  of  steel.  It  is  found  in  al- 
most all  parts  of  the  world,  and  occurs  crystallized  in  iron 
in  black  octahedrons  and  dodecahedrons;  also  massive,  as 
well  as  in  the  form  of  sand.  See  ORES. 

Malachite. — A  mineral,  the  green  carbonate  of  cop- 
per ;  also  called  velvet  copper  ore.  It  is  much  admired  as 
an  ornamental  stone  for  inlaying  purposes.  There  are  two 


Malleability.  248  Malleable  Cast  Iron. 

varieties,  the  fibrous  and  the  compact.  Constituents :  cop- 
per 58.  carbonic  acid  18.0,  oxygen  12.5,  water  11.5.  See 
COPPER;  MINERALS;  METALS. 

Malleability.— A  property  possessed  by  metals  which 
renders  them  capable  of  being  beaten  out  with  a  hammer 
or  pressed  into  plates  between  rollers.  Gold  surpasses  all 
metals  in  malleability,  being  capable  of  reduction  into  films 
not  exceeding  the  200,000th  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  whilst 
iron  has  been  rolled  into  sheets  less  than  the  2500th  of  an 
inch  in  thickness.  The  malleability  of  metals  is  here  given 
in  their  respective  order  of  value,  beginning  with  the 
highest :  Gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  cadmium,  platinum, 
lead,  zinc,  iron,  nickel,  palladium.  See  DUCTILITY  ; 
METALS  ;  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Malleable  Bronze.  —  Hard  bronze  may  be  made 
malleable  by  the  addition  of  from  J  to  2  per  cent  mercury, 
which  may  be  combined  with  either  of  the  metals  compos- 
ing the  mixture  before  the  bronze  is  finally  made.  It  can 
be  put  into  the  melted  copper  at  the  same  time  the  tin  is 
added,  or  can  be  used  as  an  amalgam  with  the  tin.  See 
BRONZE;  ALLOYS;  BRASS. 

Malleable  Cast  Iron  is  made  by  a  process  of  de- 
carburizing  the  articles  made  from  cast  or  pig  iron  in  the 
annealing  furnace,  where  they  are  subjected  to  an  oxidiz- 
ing atmosphere  somewhat  below  the  fusing-point.  The 
furnaces  employed  for  this  purpose  consist  of  iron  plates 
to  enclose  the  necessary  space,  which  serve  also  as  guides 
for  the  doors,  which  are  raised  perpendicularly,  being  bal- 
anced by  a  weight  at  the  back  of  the  furnace.  The  inside 
of  the  furnace  consists  of  fire-space  and  the  oven  proper, 
an  arch  extending  over  both,  the  fire-space  being  separated 
from  the  oven  by  a  bridge  wall  extending  nearly  to  the 


Malleable  Iron.  249  Malleable  Iron. 

arch,  leaving  only  a  narrow  space  through  which  the  flame 
is  forced  by  the  blast,  completely  filling  the  oven.  The 
gases  escape  through  small  outlets  in  the  corners  to  the 
flues  below,  which  are  fitted  with  a  damper  operating  from 
the  front.  The  castings  to  be  rendered  malleable  are  placed 
in  cast  iron  covered  boxes  or  saggers,  along  with  oxide  of 
iron,  and  subjected  to  a  red  heat  in  these  furnaces  for  from 
two  to  six  days,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  castings. 
They  are  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  See  DECARBONIZE. 

Malleable  Iron. — By  depriving  cast  iron  of  a  por- 
tion of  its  carbon  it  may  be  converted  into  malleable  or 
wrought  iron,  becoming  ductile  and  tenacious,  and  capable 
of  being  hammered  or  rolled  into  thin  sheets  or  drawn  into 
fine  wire.  Malleable  or  wrought  iron  has  a  fibrous  texture, 
but  if  it  is  subjected  to  repeated  jarring  or  blows  it  be- 
comes again  brittle,  and  can  only  be  restored  by  heating 
and  reworking.  The  ordinary  processes  of  converting  cast 
iron  into  malleable  are  :  refining,  puddling,  shingling, 
hammering,  and  rolling.  The  refining-furnace  consists  of 
a  flat  hearth  covered  with  sand,  around  which  are  metal 
troughs  through  which  a  constant  stream  of  water  is  kept 
running,  to  prevent  the  sides  from  melting;  tuyeres  set  in 
the  direction  of  the  hearth  connect  with  the  blowing-en- 
gine. The  cast  iron  is  melted  with  coke  on  the  hearth, 
and  a  blast  of  air  which  blows  directly  over  it  causes  the 
carbon  of  the  iron  to  unite  with  the  oxygen  of  the  incom- 
ing air  and  pass  away  as  carbonic-oxide  gas.  Oxygen  also 
unites  with  the  silicon  present  to  form  silica,  and  with  the 
iron  to  form  the  oxide.  A  slag  of  silicate  of  iron  is  also 
produced  by  the  silica  of  the  sand  uniting  with  the  oxide 
of  iron.  When  the  molten  mass  has  been  sufficiently  re- 
fined it  is  run  out  on  cast-iron  plates,  which  are  kept  cool 
by  streams  of  water.  This  process  only  partially  decarbon- 
izes the  iron;  it  is  then  broken  into  pieces  and  passed  to 


Mallet.  256  Manganese. 

the  puddling-furnace,  where  it  is  again  melted  and  brought 
up  to  a  high  temperature,  when  it  is  subjected  to  the  ac- 
tion of  a  current  of  air,  by  which  means  the  carbon  burns 
to  carbonic  acid,  a  portion  of  the  iron  is  oxidized,  and  this 
oxide  unites  with  the  silicon  in  the  iron  and  forms  a  fusi- 
ble slag.  The  workmen  by  means  of  long  bars  keep  up 
a  constant  stirring  or  puddling  of  the  mass,  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  exposed  to  the  air,  and  to  intimately  mix  the 
oxide  with  the  metal.  After  a  time  the  iron  loses  its  fluid- 
ity, blue  flames  appear  on  the  surface,  it  becomes  pasty, 
and  finally  falls  to  pieces.  The  fire  is  now  quickened,  and 
the  loose  masses  unite.  They  are  then  gathered  by  the 
puddler  into  balls,  which  are  at  once  conveyed  to  the 
squeezer,  or  shingling  hammer,  where  the  slag  is  pressed 
out  and  the  metal  formed  into  a  bloom,  which  is  at  once 
passed  through  the  rough  ing-rolls,  and  finally  the  finishing- 
rolls,  which  in  some  instances  completes  the  operation. 
The  quality  of  the  iron  is  improved  by  taking  the  bars 
from  the  roughing-rolls  and  cutting  them  into  lengths,  to 
be  reheated  in  piles  or  fagots,  and  then  rolled  or  hammered 
out  together.  See  PUDDLED  STEEL. 

Mallet. — A  wooden  hammer  for  service  in  the  foundry, 
where  the  marks  produced  by  the  smaller  iron-faced  ham- 
mer is  objectionable.  Besides  the  ordinary  wood  mallets, 
with  heads  3£  inches  long,  2  inches  diameter  at  the  ends, 
there  are  now  made  for  the  trade  raw-hide  mallets  from  1 
inch  to  2f  inches  diameter  at  the  head  ;  they  are  made 
entirely  of  hide,  except  the  handle,  and  are  especially 
valuable  where  light  thin  castings  are  made,  as  they  are 
not  as  likely  to  damage  the  patterns. 

Manganese  is  one  of  the  heavy  metals,  of  which  iron 
may  be  taken  as  the  representative.  Its  color  is  grayish 
white,  of  high  metallic  brilliancy,  it  takes  a  fine  polish,  is 


Manganese  bronze.  25 1  Marigariesfe-coppe?. 

non-magnetic,  fuses  at  a  white  heat  only,  and  is  so  hard 
that  steel  and  glass  may  be  scratched  by  it.  As  spiegel- 
eisen,  or  white  iron,  it  contains  8  to  15  per  cent  of  man- 
ganese. Ferro-manganese,  another  regular  article  of  com- 
merce, contains  from  25  to  75  per  cent  of  manganese. 
These  alloys  of  manganese,  with  carbon  and  iron,  along 
with  certain  small  proportions  of  other  elements,  consti- 
tuting either  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-manganese,  according  to 
the  percentage  of  manganese  contained  in  the  alloy,  are  in- 
dispensable for  the  manufacture  of  steel  by  the  Siemens, 
the  Bessemer,  or  the  crucible  modes  of  procedure. 

Manganese  combines  with  carbon  and  silica,  forming  un- 
important compounds.  One  of  its  principal  uses  is  chemi- 
cal, under  the  form  of  an  oxide  ;  it  is  employed  in  this 
state  for  decomposing  hydrochloric  acid,  in  the  manufacture 
of  chlorine,  as  a  cheap  source  of  oxygen,  and  as  coloring 
material  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  enamels.  See 
SPIEGELEISEN  ;  FERRO-MANGANESE  ;  STEEL. 

Manganese-bronze.— This  bronze,  manufactured 
by  P.  M.  Parsons,  England,  for  every  purpose  for  which  gun- 
metal  has  heretofore  been  employed,  and  for  which  object 
it  constitutes  an  eminently  superior  alloy,  is  made  by 
adding  from  1  to  2  per  cent  manganese  to  the  common 
bronzes  of  copper,  tin,  and  zinc. 

It  is  largely  used  for  propeller-blades,  sheathing,  bearings, 
piston-rings,  etc.,  and  is  said  to  be  60  per  cent  stronger 
than  gun-metal,  and  will  wear  three  times  as  long.  See 
BRONZE  ;  BRASS. 

Manganese-copper  is  used  as  a  strengthener  to 
bronze  and  brass.  The  density,  ductility,  and  tensile 
strength  of  the  metal  is  increased,  as  it  prevents  the  for- 
mation of  copper  and  tin  oxides.  The  alloy  is  made  from 
copper  70,  manganese  30,  of  which  composition  sufficient 


Manheim  Gold.  252  Marsh-gas. 

must  be  used  to  bring  the  mixture  up  to  the  required  de- 
gree of  hardness.  A  very  hard  bronze  is  made  by  using 
from  3  to  6  per  cent.  A  suitable  mixture  for  bearings 
would  be  copper  80,  tin  6J,  zinc  4J,  manganese-copper  9. 

A  hardness  resembling  steel  is  produced  by  increased 
quantities  of  cupro-manganese,  or  manganese-copper.  See 
COPPER  ;  BRONZE  ;  BRASS. 

Maiiheim  Gold. — A  brass  imitation  of  gold,  com- 
posed of  copper  16,  zinc  4,  and  tin  1.  To  insure  close  re- 
semblance to  gold,  the  crucible  must  be  clean,  metals  pure, 
and  it  is  best  to  melt  under  powdered  charcoal  in  a  covered 
crucible.  See  GOLD  ;  TOMBAC. 

Manure. — See  LOAM  ;  HORSE-MANURE. 

Marble  is  a  rock  belonging  to  the  varieties  of  carbon- 
nte  of  lime  which  have  a  granular  and  crystalline  texture. 
It  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  either  almost  pure 
when  the  color  is  white,  or  combined  with  oxide  of  iron  or 
other  impurities  which  give  various  colors  to  it.  The  far- 
famed  quarries  of  Carrara,  Italy,  have  supplied  this  beauti- 
ful material  for  statuary  purposes  from  time  immemorial. 
The  pure  white  marble  is  quarried  also  in  Vermont,  but  it 
is  not  held  in  as  high  estimation  as  that  from  Italy.  Of 
variegated  marble  there  are  many  sorts  found  in  this 
country,  but  generally  not  fit  for  sculpture.  See  LIME- 
STONE. 

Marble-chips. — The  chips  from  a  marble-yard  are 
the  very  best  material  to  use  as  a  limestone-flux  in  cupolas, 
being  comparatively  free  from  the  deleterious  substances 
usually  found  in  the  commoner  kinds  of  limestone.  See 
FLUX  ;  LIMESTONE-FLUX. 

Marsh-gas,  usually  called   fire-damp  by  miners,  is 


Martin  Steel.  253  Match  part. 

often  abundantly  disengaged  in  coal-mines  from  apertures 
or  "blowers,"  which  emit  for  a  length  of  time  a  copious 
stream  or  jet  of  gas,  probably  existing  in  a  state  of  com- 
pression pent  up  in  the  coal.  When  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  pools  in  which  water-plants  grow  is  stirred  it 
suffers  bubbles  of  gas  to  escape,  which  if  collected  are  found 
to  be  a  mixture  of  marsh-gas  and  carbonic  anhydride;  and 
it  is  thought  by  some  that  these  two  gases  represent  the 
principal  forms  in  which  the  hydrogen  and  the  oxygen  re- 
spectively were  separated  from  wood  during  the  process  of 
its  conversion  into  coal.  See  AIR  ;  VENTING.^ 

Martin  Steel  is  made  in  the  reverbe 
by  adding  malleable  iron  to  the  molten  pig 
latter  has  been  melted.  See  STEEL. 

Match-board. — Same  as  match-plate,  except 
is  made  of  wood  instead  of  metal.     See  MATCH-PLATE  ; 
MATCH-PART. 

Match-part,  sometimes  called  a  "sand  odd-part"  by 
the  moulder.  This  is  a  device  for  economizing  time  in 
making  partings  when  a  large  number  of  castings  are  re- 
quired to  be  made  in  the  same  kind  of  flasks.  One  method 
of  procedure  is  as  follows :  Procure  a  well-made  "  roll-over  " 
board,  and  arrange  the  pattern  or  patterns  suitably  for 
gating,  etc.,  and  wherever  portions  of  the  pattern  must  of 
necessity  project  upwards  into  the  cope,  set  them  just  in 
that  position  on  the  board  by  cutting  out  the  wood  at  the 
points  of  projection,  taking  care  that  the  parts  of  the  board 
adjacent  to  the  patterns  shall  leave  the  parting  all  ready 
made  around  them  when  the  nowel  has  been  rammed  and 
rolled  over.  Another  ready  way  of  accomplishing  this  is  to 
extemporize  a  match-part  by  forming  the  same  in  sand, 
hard  rammed  into  an  odd  flask  of  equal  dimensions  with. 


Matchplate.  254  Meadow-ore. 

the  ones  to  be  used;  this  may  be  coated  with  tar  and  dried, 
and  will  be  found  very  serviceable.  A  decided  improvement 
on  the  last  may  be  obtained  by  first  making  the  parting  in 
the  usual  manner  and  covering  the  same  with  oil,  and  a 
good  sprinkling  of  parting-sand;  after  which  set  thereon 
a  wood  frame  (no  deeper  than  is  absolutely  necessary), 
having  a  bottom  nailed  on,  with  a  few  nails  driven  here  and 
there  clear  of  the  parting.  A  hole  in  the  centre  will  per- 
mit the  space  to  be  filled  with  plaster,  which,  running  all 
over  the  surface  and  around  the  nails,  will,  when  set,  be 
found  a  perfect  impression  of  the  joint  required.  The 
nails  will  prevent  it  from  dropping  out.  See  MATCH- 
PLATE;  BOLL-OVER  BOARD. 

Match-plate. — A  plate  provided  with  pin-holes  cor- 
responding to  pins  and  holes  of  the  top  and  bottom  flasks 
between  which  it  is  placed,  to  be  rammed  on  both  sides  be- 
fore it  is  removed,  and  thus  save  the  labor  of  making  a  joint 
or  parting.  Should  the  patterns  present  one  plain  side, 
allowing  all  the  mould  to  be  contained  in  the  nowel,  all 
such  may  be  secured  to  the  lower  side  of  the  plate  ;  but  in 
the  event  of  there  being  a  portion  in  each  flask,  then  the 
patterns  must  be  cut  and  each  part  secured  to  the  match- 
plate  exactly  opposite  to  each  other  on  either  side  of  the 
match-plate.  See  MATCH-PART  ;  SAND  ODD-PART, 

Maul. — A  heavy  wooden  sledge-hammer,  useful  in  the 
foundry  for  many  purposes  for  which  iron  ones  are  objec- 
tionable. They  are  especially  effective  for  settling  down 
iron  copes  on  a  sand-joint,  bedding-in  large  patterns,  or 
any  purpose  where  a  steel-faced  hammer  would  be  likely  to 
break  or  mar  the  surface  struck. 

Meadow-ore. — Conchoidal  bog-iron  ore.     See  BOG- 
ORE, 


Measurement  of  Castings,  255  Melting  point. 

Measurement  of  Castings.—  See  WEIGHTS  OF 
CASTINGS. 

Medals.  —  If  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  convex  and  a  con- 
cave plaster-mould  from  a  medal,  press  tin-foil  close  into 
every  part  of  the  surface  and  pour  on  the  requisite  thick- 
ness of  plaster,  after  which,  when  it  has  hardened,  take  off 
the  medal  and  oil  the  tin-foil  surface,  over  which  the  pias- 
ter is  again  poured.  When  the  latter  thickness  of  plaster 
has  hardened,  they  may  be  separated  and  the  foil  taken  off. 

Should  the  medal  have  under-cut  parts  which  interfere 
with  a  direct  separation,  then  use  glue  instead  of  plaster, 
and  the  moulds  may  be  forcibly  withdrawn  without  ma- 
terially damaging  them.  Any  other  flat  object  may  be 
treated  as  above  described.  See  GLUE-MOULDS. 

Melting  a    Small   Quantity  of  Iron.  —  See 

FONDERIE  A  CALABASSE. 

Melting-furnace.  —  The  cupola  and  reverberatory 
are  the  iron-foundry  melting-furnaces;  the  crucible  air- 
furnace,  forced-draught,  and  reverberatory  are  the  brass- 
founders'  and  steel-rnelters'.  A  reverberatory  furnace  is 
employed  by  glass-makers  for  calcining  the  materials,  and 
crucible  or  "glass  furnaces"  to  melt  the  glass.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  Siemens  regenerative  process  is  becoming 
general  for  all  these  purposes,  excepting  for  iron-foundries, 
and  a  considerable  saving  in  fuel  is  effected  wherever  this 
system  obtains.  See 


Melting-point.  —  Tho  exact  amount  of  heat  at  which 
metals  and  other  substances  become  fused  and  lose  their 
identity.  (See  FUSIBILITY.)  The  following  gives  the 
melting-points  of  the  simple  metals  mentioned,  but  the 
melting-points  of  alloys  are  invariably  below  those  of  the 


Mending-up.  256  Mercury  or  Quicksilver. 

simple  metals  composing  them.  (See  FUSIBLE  ALLOYS.) 
Cast  iron  melts  at  3477  degrees;  wrought  iron,  3981;  steel, 
2501;  gold,  2587;  silver,  1250;  copper,  2550;  tin,  420;  zinc, 
741;  brass,  1897;  lead,  617;  aluminum,  and  700  degrees. 

Mending-up. — The  art  of  repairing  broken  surfaces 
in  the  mould  which  may  have  been  caused  by  accident, 
carelessness,  or  faulty  models  or  patterns.  This  phase  of 
the  moulder's  art  calls  for  the  nicest  manipulation,  with 
delicate  fashioning- tools  made  for  the  purpose.  See 
FINISHING. 

Mercury  or  Quicksilver. — A  metal  always  fluid 
in  our  climate,  but  solidified  by  intense  cold  into  a  malle- 
able metal  resembling  silver.  It  is  found  native  as  well 
as  combined  with  sulphur,  when  it  is  called  cinnabar. 
But  cinnabar  is  easily  reduced  at  a  red  heat  to  the  metal- 
lic state  by  the  action  of  iron  or  lime,  or  atmospheric 
oxygen  ;  the  sulphur  being  extracted,  when  iron  is  used,  as 
sulphide  of  iron;  when  lime  is  used,  as  sulphide  and  sul- 
phate of  calcium  ;  and  as  sulphurous-acid  gas  when  oxygen 
is  used.  The  alchemists  of  old  did  not  believe  mercury  to 
be  a  true  metal,  because  they  were  unaware  of  its  suscepti- 
bility to  freezing  into  a  compact  solid. 

With  the  exception  of  iron  and  platinum,  mercury  will 
readily  unite  with  all  metals  into  an  amalgam.  (See  AMAL- 
GAM ;  AMALGAMATION.)  Liquid  amalgams  of  the  precious 
metals  are  largely  used  for  gilding  and  silvering  objects 
which  have  been  made  in  baser  metals.  The  amalgam  is 
spread  over  the  object  with  brushes,  after  which  the  mer- 
cury is  driven  off  by  the  application  of  heat,  leaving  a  film 
of  the  nobler  metal  firmly  adhering  to  the  object  treated. 

Mercury  has  a  great  affinity  for  all  other  metals  that  are 
soluble  in  mercury;  for  if  an  object  be  dipped  into  it  there 
JS  great  difficulty  in  rubbing  off  the  mercury,  which  irn^ 


Metallurgy.  257  Metals. 

mediately  adheres  to  it-  If  mercury  is  rubbed  over  tin-foil, 
it  unites  in  one  mass  and  forms  an  amalgam,  as  is  the  case 
with  mercury  and  lead.  When  lead  and  bismuth  are 
mixed  with  mercury,  the  amalgam  will  be  equally  fluid 
with  the  mercury  itself.  This  important  metal  is  used  for 
barometers,  thermometers,  silvering  looking-glasses,  and  for 
many  other  useful  purposes,  including  the  making  of  ver- 
milion. It  is  largely  employed  in  separating  the  precious 
metals  from  extraneous  matter. 

Mercury  is  the  heaviest  of  all  metals  except  gold  and 
platinum;  consequently  silver,  iron,  lead,  etc.,  float  upon 
it  as  wood  does  upon  water.  The  production  of  mercury 
(1882)  in  Austria  was  542  tons;  Italy,  55  tons;  Spain,  929 
tons;  United  States  (principally  Almaden,  Cal.),  2054  tons. 
See  TIN;  AMALGAM;  FLUID  ALLOY;  METALS. 

Metallurgy. — In  a  limited  sense  metallurgy  includes 
only  the  operations  attendant  on  the  separation  of  metals 
from  their  ores;  but  it  really  comprehends  the  whole  art  of 
working  metals,  from  the  mining  of  the  ore  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  manufactured  article.  See  METALS;  MINERALS; 
ORES;  REDLTCTION  OF  METALS. 

Metals. — There  are  three  states  in  which  metals  occur 
in  nature.  First,  some  of  them,  as  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
and  mercury,  are  frequently  found  uncombined.  These 
are  said  to  occur  in  their  native  state.  Second,  many  are 
obtained  alloyed  with  each  other,  as  gold  and  silver  with 
mercury;  but  invariably  they  are  found  in  combination 
with  the  metalloids,  for  which  they  have  a  strong  attrac- 
tion; these  constitute  the  third  state,  and  are  known  as 
metallic  ores.  The  metals  are  conductors  of  electricity 
and  heat,  but  differ  in  this  respect.  Some  metals  are  so 
volatile  that  they  may  be  distilled  from  their  compounds. 
Mercury  boils  at  662°;  lead  is  volatilized  to  some  extent, 


Metals. 


258 


Metals, 


and  in  a  slight  degree  copper  also,  in  the  smelting- turn  aces; 
and  gold  will  dissipate  in  vapor  in  the  focus  of  a  powerful 
burning-glass.  With  regard  to  their  fusibility  metals  show 
a  marked  difference.  Mercury  remains  fluid  at  39°;  so- 
dium and  potassium  fuse  below  the  boiling-point  of  water; 
silver  and  gold  melt  at  a  red  heat,  iron  at  a  white  heat; 
and  platinum  only  yields  to  the  action  of  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe.  There  are  great  differences  with  respect  to 
specific  gravity  of  metals.  While  platinum  is  twenty-two 
times  heavier  than  water,  lithium  is  only  about  half  as 
heavy  as  that  liquid.  The  lightest  metals  have  the  strong- 
est affinity  for  oxygen.  Some  of  the  metals  are  neither 
malleable  nor  ductile,  yet  others  again  have  those  proper- 
ties to  a  remarkable  extent.  Gold  may  be  hammered  to  the 
200,000th  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  wire  has  been  drawn 
from  platinum  to  the  30,000th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
metals  exhibit  wide  differences  in  hardness.  Steel  may  be 
tempered  to  scratch  glass,  while  potassium  is  as  soft  as  wax. 
To  pulverize  gold  or  copper  great  force  is  required ;  yet 
others  again,  notably  antimony  and  bismuth,  may  be  re- 
duced to  powder  in  a  mortar. 

The  following  table  gives  the  relative  properties  of 
various  metals,  their  names  being  arranged  in  a  descending 
series : 


Power  to 
conduct 
Electricity. 

Brittleness. 

Malleability. 

Tenacity. 

Ductility. 

Power  to 
conduct 
Heat. 

Silver 

Antimony 

Gold 

Iron 

Gold 

Silver 

Copper 
Gold 

Arsenic 
Bismuth 

Silver 
Copper 

Copper 
Platinum 

Silver 
Platinum 

Copper 
Gold 

Zinc 

Cerium 

Tin 

Silver 

Iron 

Tin 

Iron 

Chromium 

Cadmium 

Gold 

Copper 

Iron 

Tin 

Cobalt 

Platinum 

Zinc 

Zinc 

Lead 

Lend 

Columbium 

Lead 

Tin 

Tin 

Bismuth 

Antimony 
Bismuth 

Manganese 
Titanium 

Zinc 
Iron 

Lead 

Lead 
Nickel 

Tungsten 

Nickel 

Cadmium 

Meteoric  Iron.  259  Metre 

Meteoric  Iron. — Iron  mixed  with  nickel,  as  found 
in  meteoric  stones  or  aerolites.  See  METEORIC  STONES  ; 
IRON;  NICKEL. 

Meteoric  Steel. — Steel  resembling  the  famed  Da- 
mascus steel  is  made  by  melting  in  a  plumbago  crucible, 
well  covered  with  charcoal,  silver  4,  nickel  1C,  zinc  80, 
and  pouring  the  alloy  into  water,  which  renders  it  friable. 
It  may  then  be  readily  crushed  to  powder,  and  added  to 
steel  as  follows  :  Blister-steel,  28  pounds;  chromate  of  iron, 
8  ounces;  quicklime,  2  ounces;  porcelain  clay,  3  ounces; 
meteor- powder,  10  ounces;  melted  in  the  regular  way,  cast 
into  an  ingot,  drawn  into  bars, and  in  every  respect  treated 
like  any  other  cast  steel. 

If  the  surface  is  washed  with  dilute  nitric  acid  (acid  1, 
water  19),  the  wavy  surface  common  to  Damascus  steel  will 
be  more  pronounced.  See  STEEL;  DAMASCUS  STEEL. 

Meteoric  Stones. —Usually  called  aerolites,  fire- 
balls, or  shooting-stars,  which  occasionally  fall  from  the 
atmosphere.  When  taken  up  soon  after  their  fall  they  are 
found  to  be  hot;  and,  no  matter  where  they  descend,  they 
are  all  similar  in  composition,  being  composed  of  silica,  mag- 
nesia, sulphur,  iron  in  the  metallic  state,  nickel,  and  some 
traces  of  chromium;  their  specific  gravity  varies  from  3.352 
to  4.281,  that  of  water  being  taken  as  1.000  or  unity.  Their 
exterior  appears  as  if  blackened  in  a  furnace  but  the  in- 
terior appears  of  a  grayish  white.  Their  size  varies  from 
a  few  ounces  up,  one  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  Sciences, 
Philadelphia,  weighing  800  pounds.  See  METEORIC  IRON. 

Metre. — A  measure  of  length  equal  to  39.370  English 
inches,  or  39.368  American  inches,  the  standard  of  linear 
measure,  intended  to  be  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  Equator  to  the  North  Pole,  as  ascertained 


Metric  System.  260  Mill-cinder. 

by  actual   measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian.     See 
METRIC  SYSTEM. 

Metric  System. — The  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures  was  first  adopted  in  France,  acd  by  Act  of  Con- 
gress was  authorized  to  be  used  in  tins  country  1866.  It 
is  a  decimal  system,  and  the  units  of  length,  superficies, 
solidity,  and  weight  are  all  correlated,  two  data  only  being 
used — the  metre,  and  the  weight  of  a  cube  of  water  the  side 
of  which  is  the  hundredth  part  of  a  metre.  Upon  the 
metre  are  based  the  following  primary  units:  the  square 
metre,  the  arc,  the  cubic  metre  or  stere,  the  litre,  and  the 
gram.  The  square  metre  is  the  unit  of  measure  for  small 
surfaces.  The  arc  is  the  unit  of  land  measure,  and  is  a 
square  whose  side  is  10  metres  in  1,  or  100  square  metres. 
The  cubic  metre  or  stere  is  the  unit  of  volume,  and  is  a 
cube  whose  edge  is  one  metre  in  1.  The  litre  is  the  unit 
of  capacity;  this  is  the  capacity  of  a  cube  whose  edge  is  TV  °f 
a  metre  in  1.  The  gram  is  the  unit  of  weight,  and  is  the 
weight  of  distilled  water  contained  in  a  cube  whose  edge  is 
the  T fg-  part  of  a  metre. 

From  these  primary  units  the  higher  and  lower  orders  of 
units  are  derived  decimally.  See  METRE. 

Mica. — A  mineral  of  a  somewhat  metallic  lustre, 
that  will  permit  of  being  split  in  thin  plates,  which  can 
be  substituted  for  glass  in  ship's  lanterns,  etc.;  also  for 
mounting  transparencies  in  stoves.  It  is  a  widely  diffused 
and  plentiful  mineral,  entering  largely  into  the  composition 
of  granite,  mica-slate,  etc.  It  consists  essentially  of  silicate 
of  alumina,  with  which  are  combined  small  portions  of  sili- 
cates of  potash,  soda,  oxide  of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese, 
etc.  See  GRAKITE. 

Mill-cinder. — The  slag  produced  at  the  reheating  and 


Milled  Lead.  261  Minerals. 

puddling  furnaces.  This  slag,  after  several  days'  roasting, 
becomes  highly  refractory,  and  is  known  as  bulldog,  mak- 
ing an  excellent  substance  for  the  bottoms  of  puddling- 
furnaces.  These  rich  slags  are  sometimes  mixed  with 
the  ores  in  the  blast-furnace,  and  the  iron  thus  produced 
is  then  denominated  cinder-pig ;  but,  owing  to  the  large 
percentage  of  phosphorus  usually  present  in  pig  iron  made 
by  this  method,  it  is  very  inferior  in  quality.  These  slags 
are  frequently  called  tap  and  forge  cinder.  See  SLAG. 

Milled  Lead. — Sheet  lead  made  in  the  rolling-mill  by 
passing  the  metal  through  the  rolls.  See  SHEET  LEAD. 

Mill-furnace. — A  furnace  employed  to  reheat  the 
puddled  bar  after  it  has  become  too  cold  to  pass  through 
the  rolls  to  a  finish. 

Mill-rolls. — See  ROLLS. 

Mineral  Cotton. — If  a  jet  of  steam  is  forced  through 
liquid  slag,  the  latter  is  changed  into  a  mass  of  fine  white 
threads,  which  when  gathered  together  appear  like  cotton 
wool.  It  is  sometimes  called  mineral  wool.  If  an  extra 
strong  current  of  moist  air  be  blown  into  a  cupola  that  is 
slagging  freely,  this  phenomenon  is  likely  to  occur. 

Mineralogy.— The  science  which  treats  of  the  solid 
and  inanimate  materials  of  which  our  globe  consists,  the 
four  classes  of  which  are  earthy  minerals,  composing  the 
greater  part  of  the  earth's  crust ;  saline  minerals,  inflam- 
mable minerals,  and  metallic  minerals.  See  MINERALS; 
METALS;  EARTHS. 

Mineral  Oils.— See  PETROLEUM. 

Minerals  are  all  such  natural  bodies  as  are  destitute 


Mirrors.  262  Mixing  Cast  IroA. 

of  organization,  existing  either  within  or  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  which  are  neither  animal  nor  vegetable. 

The  hardness  of  minerals,  beginning  with  the  softest,  is  as 
follows:  1.  Talc;  2.  Gypsum;  3.  Calcareous  spar;  4.  Fluor- 
spar; 5.  Apatite;  6.  Feldspar;  7.  Quartz;  8.  Topaz;  9. 
Sapphire;  10.  Corundum;  11.  Diamond.  See  PRECIOUS 
STONES;  EARTHS;  MINERALS. 

Mirrors. — For  methods  pursued  in  producing  glass 
mirrors,  see  MERCURY.  For  metal  mirrors,  see  BRASS 
MIRRORS. 

Mitis  Metal. — The  name  given  to  an  alloy  of  alumi- 
num with  wrought  iron.  For  the  production  of  castings 
in  this  metal,  the  wrought  iron  is  heated  until  it  has  be- 
come pasty,  and  then  treated  to  a  small  quantity  of  alumi- 
num, which  immediately  liquefies  the  iron  in  a  fit  condition 
for  pouring  into  the  moulds. 

These  so-called  mitis  castings,  it  is  claimed,  have  all  the 
properties,  excepting  fibre,  that  wrought  iron  possesses,  be- 
sides being  much  softer  than  cast  iron.  Wrought-iron  or 
mild-steel  scrap  is  usually  the  basis  of  this  metal  ;  but  no 
matter  what  the  kind  of  material  be,  it  is  preferable  that  it 
should  not  contain  more  than  0.1  per  cent  of  phosphorus 
when  the  best  results  attainable  are  desired.  About  3^ 
ounces  of  aluminum  are  sufficient  for  100  pounds  of  iron. 
See  ALUMINUM. 

Mixing  Alloys.— See  ALLOY. 

Mixing  Cast  Iron. — The  art  of  mixing  certain  pro- 
portions of  different  brands  of  iron  to  obtain  castings  of 
such  quality  as  will  best  serve  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  intended.  Without  a  chemical  knowledge  of  the  act- 
ual ingredients  needed  for  the  production  of  a  certain  qual- 


Mock  Gold.  263  Modelling. 

ity  of  iron,  mixing  cast  iron  must  always  remain  in  the 
realm  of  conjecture.  True,  there  is  much  to  be  said  in 
favor  of  the  superior  facilities  for  subsequent  testing ;  but 
this  gives  no  substantial  data,  and  must  always  be  repeated 
on  every  change  of  the  materials  employed.  Late  develop- 
ments relating  to  the  power  of  silicon  to  change  the  nature 
of  cast  iron  has  opened  a  way  for  a  more  intelligent  system 
of  mixing.  See  ANALYSIS  ;  TESTING-MACHINE;  SILICON; 
SOFTENERS  ;  GRADES  OF  PIG  IKON. 

Mock  Gold. — See  GOLD  ALLOY;  ORMOLU. 

Mock  Platinum.  —  A  factitious  platinum  is  pro- 
duced by  mixing  5  zinc  with  8  brass.  For  composition  of 
brass,  see  BRASS. 

Mock  Silver  is  a  white-metal  alloy,  ordinarily  used 
by  jewellers,  etc.  If  3.53  of  silver  be  alloyed  with  11.71 
copper  and  2.4  of  platinum,  the  composition  will  have 
about  the  same  specific  gravity  as  the  pure  metal.  Pack- 
fong,  or  tutenag,  another  imitation,  is  composed  of  :  cop- 
per 40.4,  zinc  25.4,  and  nickel  31.6.  German  tutunia  : 
tin  48,  antimony  4,  copper  1.  See  SILVER  ALLOYS  ;  IMI- 
TATION SILVER. 

Modelling. — The  art  of  designing  or  copying  works 
of  art  in  clay,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  moulds  in 
which  they  may  be  cast  in  plaster  or  metal.  The  fingers, 
aided  by  a  few  implements  of  metal  or  wood, — usually  both, 
— are  the  only  tools  required  for  fashioning  the  clay.  Or- 
dinarily, the  common  potters'-clay  will  serve  this  purpose  ; 
but  for  designs  which  occupy  a  lengthened  period  to  pro- 
duce, it  is  mixed  with  other  ingredients  to  keep  it  in  a 
moist  condition.  The  support  of  a  figure  in  modelling  is 
of  great  importance,  requiring  in  some  instances  a  skele- 


Modellers'  Wax.  264  Molasses. 

ton  of  wood  or  iron  supports  on  which  to  work  the  clay. 
When  the  model  is  complete,  a  plaster  impression  of  the 
same  is  taken  in  sections,  which  are  then  placed  to- 
gether in  precisely  the  same  position  as  they  occupied  on 
the  model;  the  space  originally  occupied  by  the  model 
is  now  filled  with  plaster,  and  when  the  cast  is  well  set 
the  mould  is  carefully  taken  off,  exposing  a  finished  cast 
of  the  model.  This  is  a  much  better  plan  than  that  of  the 
ancient  sculptors,  who  simply  dried  the  clay  model  ;  but 
clay  cracks  and  shrinks  in  drying,  therefore  plaster-casts 
from  the  models  are  best.  See  FOUNDING  OF  STATUES  ; 
MODELLING-CLAY. 

Modellers'  Wax.— See  WAX. 

Modelling-clay. — Common  potters'-clay  mixed  with 
water  will  answer  for  inferior  work  ;  for  work  of  superior 
quality  dry  clay  may  be  brought  to  the  right  consistency 
with  glycerine:  but  for  models  requiring  considerable  time 
for  their  completion,  and  to  avoid  the  repeated  moistening 
to  which  they  must  be  subjected,  it  is  best  to  use  a  clay 
composed  of  :  clay  3,  sulphur  6,  oxide  of  zinc  1,  fatty 
acids  2,  fats  10.  First  saponify  the  zinc-white  with  oleic 
acid,  which  then  mix  with  the  other  fatty  acids  ;  add  sul- 
phur in  flowers,  and  the  clay  in  dry  powder.  See  OILS  ; 
ZINC;  POTTERY. 

Moire  Metallique.  —  A  crystalline  appearance  of 
great  beauty  given  to  tin-plate  by  brushing  over  the  heated 
metal  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  nitric  acid,  2  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  4  of  water.  As  soon  as  the  crystals  appear  the 
plate  is  quickly  washed,  dried,  and  varnished.  See  Tisr. 

Molasses.  —  A  brown,  viscid,  uncrystallized  syrup 
produced  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  Owing  principally 


Molecule.  265  Molecule. 

to  the  gluey  nature  of  this  product,  it  can  be  made  of  great 
use  in  the  foundry.  Core-sands  void  of  the  quality  of 
adhesiveness  may,  by  being  mixed  with  molasses,  be  made 
sufficiently  tenacious  to  admit  of  their  being  employed 
where,  if  sands  containing  aluminous  substances  were  used, 
there  would  be  great  difficulty  in  extracting  the  core  when 
cast.  The  molasses,  owing  to  its  sticky  nature,  holds  the 
loose  grains  of  silica  together  until  the  molten  metal  has 
solidified,  during  which  time  all  its  cohesive  qualities  have 
been  burned  away  by  the  intense  heat,  leaving  the  sand 
free  to  run  out  of  the  cavity  at  the  slightest  provocation. 
Common  beach  and  river  sands  may  be  made  serviceable 
by  the  use  of  molasses  when  the  cores  are  for  light  castings; 
but  when  it  is  desired  to  accomplish  similar  results  in  heavy 
castings,  the  more  refractory  silica  sands  must  be  used.. 

Molasses  is  now  extensively  used  for  mixing  with  the  sil- 
ica sands,  etc.,  used  in  steel  casting,  in  order  to  bring  these 
incoherent  materials  up  to  the  right  consistency  for  form- 
ing the  moulds. 

Mixed  with  water  until  the  latter  may  be  pronounced 
very  sweet,  it  is  an  excellent  restorative  for  a  badly  burned 
mould  surface,  especially  when  a  little  black  lead  has  been 
stirred  in.  If  the  mixture  be  too  thick  with  molasses,  in- 
stead of  penetrating  the  burned  mould  surface,  it  will  lie 
there  and  form  a  hard  skin,  which,  as  it  dries,  separates 
and  curls  up,  bringing  the  sand  with  it,  and  making  mat- 
ters worse.  See  CORE-SAND  ;  FLOUR  ;  GLUE  ;  STEEL 
CASTINGS. 

Molecule. — One  of  the  constituent  particles  of  bodies. 
The  molecules  of  bodies  are  divided  into  integrant  and 
constituent,  the  integrant  having  properties  similar  to  the 
mass,  and  are  consequently  simple  or  compound,  as  the 
mass  is  either  one  or  the  other.  A  mass  of  pure  metal 
consists  of  integrant  particles,  each  of  which  has  metallic 


Mosaic  Gold.  266  Moulding. 

properties  similar  to  those  possessed  by  the  whole  mass. 
Similarly,  a  mass  of  alloy  consists  of  integrant  particles, 
each  of  which  is  a  compound  of  the  different  metals  form- 
ing the  alloy.  When  a  compound  integrant  molecule  is 
decomposed  we  arrive  at  the  constituent  molecules.  There- 
fore oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  the  constituent  molecules  of 
an  integrant  molecule  of  water. 

Mosaic  Gold. — A  cheap  brass  used  for  making  imi- 
tation jewelry.  It  is  made  by  alloying  copper  with  about 
equal  parts  of  zinc.  See  GOLD  ALLOY;  ORMOLU;  TOMBAC. 

Mottled  Iron. — The  variety  of  pig  iron  which  is 
evidently  between  the  two  extremes  of  white  and  gray. 
The  fracture  shows  a  decided  mottle,,  seemingly  caused  by 
the  distribution  of  detached  portions  of  white  iron  through- 
out a  matrix  of  gray  iron.  Pig  iron  is  termed  high  or  low 
mottle,  according  to  the  proportion  of  white  iron  present  in 
the  pig.  See  GRAY  IRON;  WHITE  IRON;  CAST  IRON. 

Moulding. — The  art  of  preparing  moulds  from  plastic 
materials  of  such  a  nature  as  will  successfully  resist  the  in- 
tense heat  of  molten  metal, — as  loam  or  sand, — in  which 
may  be  formed  the  object  to  be  produced  in  metal,  the 
process  being  completed  when  the  metal  has  been  melted, 
run  into  the  mould,  and  solidified.  True,  there  are  moulds 
used  for  special  purposes  in  iron-casting  other  than  those 
composed  of  sand;  as  for  instance,  rolls,  car-wheels,  etc., 
which  require  to  be  chilled  in  parts.  This  is  accomplished 
by  providing  smooth  cast-iron  surfaces  for  the  metal  to  lie 
against.  Again,  castings  in  zinc,  lead,  tin,  or  alloys  made 
from  these  metals  are  frequently  cast  in  moulds  composed 
entirely  of  either  brass  or  iron  ;  by  this  means  the  castings 
are  not  only  a  true  duplicate  of  each  other,  but  are  made 
much  cheaper. 


Moulding  in  Dry  Sand.  267  Moulding-machines. 

For  flexible  moulds,  see  GLUE-MOULDS  and  ELASTIC 
MOULDS;  also,  "The  Iron  Founder"  and  "The  Iron 
Founder  Supplement,"  in  which  works  the  whole  art  of 
moulding  is  comprehensively  set  forth. 

Moulding  in  Dry  Sand. — See  DRY-SA^D  MOULD- 
ING. 

Moulding  in  Loam.— See  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Moulding-machines. — These  machines,  in  infinite 
variety,  are  now  recognized  everywhere  as  competent  to  pro- 
duce castings  of  limited  variety,  in  a  far  superior  manner 
than  is  possible  by  the  old  methods.  Besides  the  numerous 
excellent  gear-moulding  machines  of  Scott,  Whittaker, 
Buckley  &  Taylor,  and  Simpson,— which,  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  pattern  corresponding  to  the  gear  to  be  moulded, 
are  all  able  to  produce  gears  from  9  inches  diameter  up, 
either  spur,  bevel,  mitre,  mortise,  or  worm,  plain  or 
shrouded, — we  have  numbers  of  machines  for  the  produc- 
tion of  general  work  of  all  descriptions.  Some  of  these 
machines  are  still  worked  with  hand-levers,  but  these  are 
being  rapidly  superseded  by  steam,  hydraulic,  and  pneu- 
matic contrivances,  which,  with  their  several  automatic 
arrangements,  demonstrate  the  capacity  of  their  builders 
to  overcome  difficulties  which  until  very  lately  seemed 
beyond  the  bounds  of  possibility. 

The  "Tabor"  moulding-machine  may  be  used  with 
either  steam,  water,  or  compressed  air;  but  steam  is  prefer- 
able in  most  cases,  because  it  can  be  easily  obtained  with- 
out the.  use  of  special  auxiliary  machinery  of  any  kind. 
The  rammer  system  of  this  machine  gives  greater  pressure 
at  parts  which  would  otherwise  be  too  soff. 

The  "Yielding  Platen"  moulding-machine  is  provided 
on  the  top  with  a  rubber  bag  containing  water  or  com- 


Moulding-sand.  268  Muck-bar. 

pressed  air,  and  the  bottom  of  the  machine  is  caused  to 
rise  by  compressed  tiir,  thus  forcing  the  flask  with  its  sand 
against  the  rubber  bag,  which,  they  claim,  presses  the  sand 
in  a  manner  impossible  by  any  other  known  method. 

The  "  Teetor "  moulding-machine  provides  means  for 
holding  the  flask  securely  and  turning  it  over  ;  also  for 
jarring  the  pattern  and  holding  the  same  perfectly  level,  to 
allow  a  clean  separation  of  the  mould  therefrom. 

Moulding-sand. — See  FACING-SAND. 

Moulding-tools. — Broadly  speaking,  moulding-tools 
consist  of  every  foundry  equipment  necessary  to  make 
moulds  with,  including  shovel,  brushes,  riddles,  clamps, 
wedges,  parallels,  level,  compass,  vent-rods,  gaggcrs,  ram- 
mers, etc.;  but  the  more  artistic  class,  used  for  finishing 
the  moulds  with,  are  the  ones  usually  recognized  as  mould- 
ing-tools. A  full  description  of  these,  with  instructions 
for  using  them,  will  be  found  at  their  respective  places 
throughout  this  work. 

Moulds  for  Steel. — See  STEEL  CASTINGS;  INGOT- 
MOULDS, 

Moulds,  Open-sand.— See  OPEN-SAND  MOULDING. 
Moulds,  Pressure  in.— See  PRESSURE  IN  MOULDS. 

Mousing-hook. — A  hook  with  some  contrivance  for 
preventing  the  hook,  ring,  or  link  resting  therein  from  slip- 
ping out. 

Muck-bar. — When  the  iron  has  been  balled  in  the 
puddling-furnace,  forced  through  the  squeezer,  and  passed 
once  through  the  rough  ing-rolls,  it  is  termed  muck-bar, 


Muffle.  269  Nails. 

and  is  ready  for  being  cut   into  pieces  for  piling,  reheat- 
ing, and  rolling  again.     See  ROLLIKG-MILL. 

Muffle. — An  arched  vessel  with  a  flat  bottom,  made  of 
refractory  materials,  in  which  to  place  cupels  and  tests  in 
the  operations  of  assaying,  to  preserve  them  from  coming 
in  direct  contact  with  the  fuel.  One  end  is  open,  and  slits 
on  the  side  allow  a  draught  of  air  through  it.  The  sub- 
stances operated  upon  are  by  this  means  effectually  shielded 
from  the  impurities  of  the  fuel.  See  ASSAY. 

Muiitz-metal. — An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  used  for 
the  sheathing  of  ships,  composed  of  copper  60,  zinc  40. 
This  alloy  admits  of  hot  rolling.  See  BRASS  ;  COPPER; 
SHEATHIKG-METAL. 

Musliet  Oast  Steel  is  made  by  melting  malleable 
scrap-iron  with  charcoal  and  oxide  of  manganese  in  cruci- 
bles directly,  independent  of  blister-steel.  See  STEEL. 

Mushet's  Crucibles. — See  CRUCIBLES. 

Music-metal. — Tin  65.8,  antimony  8,  copper  26,  iron 
3.2.  The  common  alloy  is  tin  80,  copper  20.  See  BRASS; 
COPPER;  ALLOYS. 


N. 

Nails. — Formerly  all  nails  were  made  by  hand  or  forged 
on  the  anvil,  and  large  quantities  are  still  produced  in  this 
manner  in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  Nail-mak- 
ing by  machinery  was  originated  in  Massachusetts  in  1810. 
At  present  we  have  machine  wronght-nails,  cut-nails,  and 
cast-nails.  The  machine  cut-nails  are  simply  wedge-like  in 
breadth,  equal  in  thickness — head  and  body — to  the  sheet 


Naphtha. 


70 


Natural  Gas. 


iron  from  which  they  are  cut,  and  these  are  always  to  be 
preferred  for  strengthening  and  securing  the  sand  surfaces 
of  moulds,  rather  than  those  which  have  had  heads  forged 
on  them.  The  length  of  iron  machine  cut-nails  and  the 
number  contained  in  a  pound  will  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


Size. 

Length 
in 

No. 
in  a 

Size. 

Length 
in 

No. 
in  a 

Size. 

Length 
in 

No. 
in  a 

inches. 

pound. 

inches. 

pound. 

inches. 

pound. 

3-Penny. 

4      " 

1} 
U 

420 
270 

6-Penny. 

2 

2J 

175 

100 

12-  Penny. 

20    " 

SJ 

52 

28 

5      " 

12 

220 

10    " 

3 

65 

30    " 

4 

24 

40    " 

4i 

20 

Naphtha. — This  word  is  derived  from  the  Persian 
(to  exude),  and  was  originally  applied  to  an  inflammable 
liquid  hydro-carbon  which  exudes  from  the  soil  in  certain 
parts  of  Persia.  The  term  is,  however,  now  used  to  desig- 
nate a  similar  and  almost  identical  fluid  that  issues  from 
the  ground  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  known  as 
petroleum,  rock-oil,  etc.,  but  the  term  is  also  applied  to 
other  liquids  which  resemble  true  naphtha  in  little  else  than 
in  their  volatility  and  inflammability,  as  methylic  alcohol 
or  wood-spirit,  etc.  See  PETROLEUM. 

Native  Iron. — Native  iron  is  of  rare  occurrence  ;  it 
almost  always  forms  part  of  meteoric  stones.  When  found 
it  is  malleable,  and  may  be  worked  like  manufactured  iron. 
See  METEOEIC 


Natural  Gas. — Gas-springs  or  gas-wells  through 
which  issue  combustible  gases  from  the  earth  are  to  be 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  It  was  by  this  means 
that  the  holy  fires  of  Baku,  on  the  Caspian,  and  the  sacred 
fires  of  the  Greeks  were  supplied  with  fuel.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  the  same  as  the  fire-damp  of  coal-mines,  which  is 


New  Bed  sandstone.  271  Nickel. 

liberated  by  the  pick  of  the  miner.  In  all  cases  these  com- 
bustible gases  consist  to  a  large  extent  of  marsh-gas,  also 
called  light  carbu  retted  hydrogen.  (See  MARSH-GAS.)  In 
many  cities  throughout  the  States,  notably  Pittsburg,  the 
gas  is  used  altogether  as  a  steam-producer;  for  heating 
metals, — iron,  steel,  brass,  etc., — in  the  diverse  branches  of 
their  utilization,  except  for  smelting  ore,  in  which  coke  con- 
tinues still  to  be  employed.  Natural  gas  has  an  intense  heat- 
ing-power, is  free  from  substances  deleterious  to  metals,  is 
cheap  and  easily  handled,  and  leaves  no  ashes.  One  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  gas  is  equivalent  in  heating-power  to  56 
pounds  of  coal,  which  represents  a  saving  of  20  per  cent  at 
first  cost,  besides  the  labor  of  handling  and  transportation. 
See  FUEL. 

New  Red-sandstone. — The  name  given  to  a  group 
of  sandstones,  generally  of  a  red  color,  occurring  between 
the  carboniferous  rocks  and  the  lias,  which  name  is  given 
them  in  contradiction  to  the  old  red-sandstone  group, 
which  lies  below  the  coal-measures  and  has  a  similar  mineral 
structure.  See  OLD  RED  SANDSTONE;  FACING-SAND; 
BLACK  SAND. 

New  Sand. — Fresh  sand  from  the  quarries  and  pits, 
furnished  to  the  foundries  for  moulding  purposes.  See 
BLACK  SAND;  FACING-SAND;  OLD  SAND. 

Newton's  Fusible  Metal.— Bismuth  8,  lead  5,  tin 
3.  This  alloy  melts  at  212°.  See  FUSIBLE  ALLOYS. 

Nickel. — A  white  metal  which,  when  pure,  is  both 
ductile  and  malleable.  Its  color  is  intermediate  between 
that  of  silver  and  tin,  and  is  not  altered  by  the  air.  It  is 
nearly  as  hard  as  iron.  Its  specific  gravity  is  8.27,  and 
when  forged  8.66.  The  species  of  nickel  ores  are  its  alloy 


Nickel  plating.  272  Nitre. 

with  arsenic  and  a  little  sulphur  and  its  oxide;  the  first  is 
the  most  abundant,  and  the  one  from  which  nickel  is  usually 
extracted.  It  is  known  to  mineralogists  03'  the  German 
name  of  kupfernickel,  or  false  copper,  from  its  color  and 
appearance.  Nickel  only  occurs  in  the  native  state  in 
meteoric  stones. 

Nickel  fuses  -at  2800°  F.  Its  ores  are  found  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Germany,  Sweden,  and  Hungary. 
The  effect  of  the  magnet  upon  pure  nickel  is  very  little 
inferior  to  that  which  it  exerts  on  iron,  but  this  entirely 
ceases  when  the  metal  is  heated  to  350°  F. 

The  chief  use  of  nickel  has  been  in  the  composition  of 
various  alloys,  especially  German-silver,  all  of  which  are 
duly  noticed  in  their  respective  order.  It  is,  however,  be- 
ing gradually  introduced  as  an  alloy  with  steel  for  ship's 
armor,  etc.  See  GERM  AN -SILVER. 

Nickel-plating. — The  art  of  nickel  electro-plating 
was  invented  by  Bottcher  about  1848,  and  had  developed 
into  an  important  industry.  The  best  kind  of  solution  to  use 
is  one  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  ammonia,  which 
should  be  saturated  at  25°,  and  used  in  conjunction  with  a 
plate  of  nickel  as  positive  electrode.  See  PLATING. 

Niello-engraving. — A  kind  of  engraving  of  consid- 
erable antiquity.  It  was  very  much  practised  in  the  middle 
ages.  The  art  consisted  in  drawing  a  design  with  a  stylus 
or  needle  on  gold  and  silver  plates,  and  then  cutting  it 
with  a  graver.  These  incised  lines  were  then  filled  with  a 
composition  of  copper  1,  bismuth  1,  lead  1,  and  silver  9, 
the  compound  being  of  a  bluish  color  when  a  little  sulphur 
is. added.  The  metal  is  called  Niello-silver,  or  Tula. 

Nitre,  or  Saltpetre,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  occurs 
as  a  native  product  in  the  earth  in  many  parts  of  the 


Nitric  Acid.  273  Nitric  Acid. 

world,  and  is  separated  therefrom  by  leaching  the  soil  and 
allowing  the  nitre  to  crystallize.  It  is  artificially  formed 
by  heaping  up  organic  matter  with  lime,  ashes,  and  soil, 
and  keeping  the  mass  moistened  with  urine  for  a  lengthened 
period,  when  the  heap  is  lixiviated  and  the  salt  crystallized 
out.  Nitre  dissolves  in  about  three  times  its  weight  of 
cold  and  one  third  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  Paper 
dipped  in  this  solution  and  dried  forms  what  is  known  as 
touch-paper.  Nitre  has  a  cooling,  saline  taste,  and  strong 
antiseptic  powers.  Owing  to  the  latter  quality  it  is  exten- 
sively used  in  packing  meat.  It  is  chiefly  consumed,  how- 
ever, in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  ;  the  large  amount 
of  oxygen  it  contains,  and  the  feeble  affinity  by  which  it  is 
held,  adapting  it  for  sudden  and  rapid  combustion. 

Nitric  Acid. — The  two  principal  constituent  parts  of 
our  atmosphere — oxygen  and  nitrogen  gases — when  in  cer- 
tain proportions  are  capable  under  particular  circumstances 
of  combining  chemically  into  one  of  the  most  powerful 
acids — the  nitric.  For  all  practical  purposes,  nitric  acid  is 
obtained  from  nitrate  of  potash,  from  which  it  is  expelled 
by  sulphuric  acid. 

The  nitric  acid  is  of  considerable  use  in  the  arts.  It  is 
employed  for  etching  on  copper  ;  as  a  solvent  of  tin  to 
form  with  that  metal  a  mordant  for  some  of  the  finest 
dyes;  in  metallurgy  and  assaying,  in  various  chemical  pro- 
cesses, on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  parts  with 
oxygen  and  dissolves  metals.  For  the  purposes  of  the  arts 
it  is  commonly  used  in  a  diluted  state  and  adulterated 
with  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids,  by  the  name  of  aqua- 
fortis. Two  kinds  are  made :  one  called  double  aqua- 
fortis, which  is  one  half  the  strength  of  nitric  acid;  the 
other  simply  aquafortis,  which  is  half  the  strength  of  the 
double.  A  compound  made  by  mixing  two  parts  of  the 
nitric  acid  with  one  of  muriatic,  known  formerly  by  the 


Nitrogen.  274  Numbering  Pig  Iron. 

name  of  aqua  regia,  and  now  by  that  of  nUro-muriatic 
add,  has  the  property  of  dissolving  gold  and  platina.  On 
mixing  the  two  acids  heat  is  given  out,  an  effervescence 
takes  place,  and  the  mixture  acquires  an  orange  color.  See 
AQUA  REGIA;  ATMOSPHERE. 

Nitrogen. — A  gas  discovered  by  Rutherford  in  1772. 
It  is  extensively  diffused  in  nature,  forming  about  four 
fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  in  which  it  plays  the  important 
part  of  diluting  the  oxygen  and  adapting  it  to  the  condi- 
tions of  life.  It  is  an  important  element  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  entering  in  considerable  quantity  into  many  of 
its  compounds.  It  is  supplied  to  plants  by  ammonia  and 
nitric  acid.  Our  food  is  largely  composed  of  nitrogen,  and 
it  forms  16  per  cent  of  the  tissues  of  the  animal  body. 
Nitrogen  is  not  found  in  any  of  the  mineral  formations  of 
the  earth's  crust,  except  in  some  varieties  of  coal.  See 
ATMOSPHERE;  OXYGEN;  AMMONIA. 

Nosing. — The  projecting  moulding  on  the  edge  of  a 
stair  tread,  which  stands  immediately  in  front  at  the  top 
edge  of  the  riser. 

Nowel. — The  bottom  flask  in  a  set  composed  of  cope 
and  nowel.  See  FLASKS. 

Numbering  Pig  Iron. — The  numbers  given  to  pig 
iron,  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  etc.,  is  simply  a  commercial 
classification  in  order  to  distinguish  the  various  qualities 
as  delivered  from  the  blast-furnaces,  indicating  to  the  pur- 
chaser the  grade  or  quality  of  each  brand  and  the  purposes 
for  which  they  are  best  adapted.  No.  1  invariably  shows 
the  largest  crystals,  is  soft  and  bright,  and  adapted  for 
light  castings;  No.  2,  of  the  same  brand,  will  be  recognized 
as  lighter  in  color,  with  smaller  crystals,  suitable  for  general 


Nurnberg  Gold.  276  Oils  and  Fats. 

work,  machinery,  etc. ;  while  again,  of  the  same  brand  we 
may  have  a  more  dense  iron,  with  indications  of  mottle, 
which  is  denominated  No.  3;  and  so  on  to  white  iron,  a 
higher  number  still.  See  CAST  IRON,  WHITE  IRON,  GRAY 
IRON,  MOTTLED  IRON. 

Number  of  Nails  in  a  Pound. — See  NAILS. 

Nuriiberg"  Gold. — A  mock  gold,  exactly  like  Man- 
heim.  See  MANHEIM  GOLD. 

Nuts  in  Loam-plates. — When  it  is  desired  to 
connect  one  or  more  plates  (with  the  intervening  bricks), 
in  loam-moulding,  where  staples  for  hook-bolts  would  be 
objectionable,  a  reliable  substitute  for  the  latter  will  be 
found  by  casting  threaded  nuts  at  parts  of  the  plate  con- 
venient for  inserting  iron  bolts  with  threads  on  both  ends. 
The  nuts  can  be  made  immovable  in  the  plate  by  filing 
a  slight  V  at  the  corners  for  the  molten  iron  to  fill  when 
the  plates  are  cast.  See  BINDING-PLATES, 


O. 

Oils  and  Fats.— Fats  are  merely  solid  or  semi-fluid 
oils.  The  fixed  oils  and  fats  form  a  well-defined  group  of 
organic  compounds,  which  are  abundantly  obtained  from 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  They  are  not  so 
heavy  as  water,  their  specific  gravity  ranging  from  0.91  to 
0.94.  They  differ  very  much  in  their  degrees  of  solidity, 
and  do  not  consist  of  any  single  substance  in  a  state  of 
purity,  being  principally  mixtures  in  varying  proportions 
of  four  different  but  closely-allied  bodies,  viz. :  stearine 
(or  suet);  palmitine  (so  called  from  olive-oil,  being  very 
abundant  in  the  latter);  margarine  (from  a  pearl,  owing 


Oils  and  Fats.  276  Oils  and  Fats. 

to  its  pearly  lustre) ;  and  oleine.  The  three  first  are  solid 
at  common  temperatures,  while  the  fourth  remains  liquid. 
Fat  is  softer  and  its  melting-point  lower  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  oleine  it  contains. 

Fats  are  all  soluble  in  ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  benzol, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  in  alcohol,  but  not  in  water.  The 
most  solid  fat  sare  readily  reducible,  and  become  reduced 
to  a  fluid  or  oily  state  at  a  temperature  lower  than  that 
of  the  boiling-point  of  water.  When  the  fats  or  oils  are 
boiled  with  an  alkali  they  undergo  the  remarkable  change 
called  saponification.  The  fat  by  this  process  is  decom- 
posed into  a  fatty  acid  and  glycerine,  the  acid  combining 
with  the  alkali  to  form  soap,  and  the  glycerine  passes  into 
solution. 

Chevreul  discovered  that  the  fats  and  oils  consisted  of 
several  proximate  principles,  known  as  stearine,  margarine, 
arid  oleine,  which  are  each  capable  of  being  separated  into 
an  acid  and  a  base,  the  base  being  the  same  in  all,  and 
known  as  glycerine. 

Oleine  is  that  portion  of  oil  which,  as  before  said,  causes 
its  fluidity.  Stearine  gives  to  certain  fats  and  oils  the 
opposite  quality  of  solidity,  as  in  candles,  etc.  Margarine 
resembles  stearine  in  its  property  of  hardness;  it  exists  in 
human  fat,  butter,  olive-oil,  etc. 

The  fixed  oils  are  of  two  classes — the  drying  oils,  or  those 
which  harden  on  exposure  to  the  air;  and  the  unctuous 
oils,  or  those  which  remain  soft  and  greasy  under  the  same 
exposure.  The  hardening  of  the  oils  is  due  to  the  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen. 

The  most  important  of  the  drying  oils  is  linseed,  which 
is  obtained  by  subjecting  flaxseeds  to  pressure.  Next  in 
importance  as  a  drying  oil  for  paints  is  hemp-seed,  poppy, 
and  walnut.  The  most  important  non-drying  oils  are 
olive-oil,  almond-oil,  and  colza-oil,  which  are  extensively 
used  in  making  soap,  candles,  and  illuminating  oils.  Cas- 


Oil-stone.  277  Opal. 

tor-oil  is  a  connecting  link  to  these  two  classes  of  oils,  being 
gradually  hardened  by  long  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 

The  drying  property  of  oils  is  much  increased  by  heating 
them  with  about  .05  of  their  weight  of  litharge,  which 
becomes  dissolved  by  the  oil.  Linseed-oil  thus  treated  is 
known  as  boiled  oil.  See  LITHARGE. 

Oil-stone. — See  WHETSTONE. 

Old  Red-sandstone. — This  group  of  sandstone  lies 
below  the  carboniferous  strata,  and  was  called  "  old "  to 
distinguish  it  from  a  series  of  similar  strata  which  occur 
above  the  coal-measures.  See  NEW  RED- SANDSTONE. 

Old  Sand.— See  BLACK  SAND;  NEW  SAND;  FACING- 
SAND. 

Oleine. — See  OILS. 

Olive  Bronze  Dip  for  Brass.— Nitric  acid  3 
ounces,  muriatic  acid  2  ounces;  add  titanium  or  palladium. 
When  the  metal  is  dissolved  add  two  gallons  of  pure  soft 
water  to  each  pint  of  the  solution.  See  STAINS  FOB  MET- 
ALS. 

Onyx. — A  chalcedony,  with  alternate  layers  of  white, 
black,  and  brown.  It  is  found  in  Saxony,  Arabia,  and 
Ireland,  and  is  used  largely  for  cameos.  See  PRECIOUS 
STONES. 

Oolite. — A  variety  of  limestone,  so  called  from  its 
being  composed  of  small  rounded  grains  resembling  the 
roe  of  a  fish,  cemented  together  by  a  calcareous  formation. 
See  LIMESTONE. 

Opal. — A  species  of  the  quartz  family  of  minerals,  from 


Open  hearth  Cast  Steel.  2^8  Open-hearth  Cast  Steel, 

which  it  differs  in  containing  5  to  13  per  cent  of  water. 
It  is  a  precious  stone,  consisting  principally  of  silica  with 
sojne  alumina.  When-  first  dug  from  the  earth  it  is  soft, 
but  it  hardens  and  diminishes  in  bulk  by  exposure  to  the 
air.  The  specific  gravity  varies  from  1.9  to  2.5.  Sub- 
species of  this  gem  are  called  the  semi  and  the  wood  opal. 
It  is  translucent,  usually  blue  or  yellowish  white,  and  ex- 
hibits a  beautiful  play  of  brilliant  colors  owing  to  minute 
fissures  which  refract  the  light.  Found  in  Hungary, 
Queenstown,  and  the  United  States.  See  MINERALS  ; 
PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Open-hearth  Cast  Steel. — This  steel  is  produced 
on  a  large  scale  and  is  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  steel 
made  by  the  Bessemer  process,  by  puddling,  or  from  blister- 
steel  melted  in  the  crucible. 

Heath,  in  1845,  patented  his  invention  of  producing 
cast  steel  by  dissolving  malleable  scrap  in  molten  cast  iron 
by  a  process  independent  of  crucibles,  by  melting  pig  iron 
in  a  cupola,  and  running  this  into  the  bed  of  a  steel-making 
furnace,  into  the  upper  part  of  which  the  malleable  iron 
was  introduced  in  bars,  that  they  might  be  heated  by  the 
waste  heat  and  gradually  pushed  forward  so  as  to  dissolve 
in  the  molten  pig,  with  the  formation  of  steel.  Siemens 
said  this  method  would  have  been  successful  had  the  re- 
generative principle  been  known  to  Heath,  whereby  he 
could  have  obtained  the  requisite  intensity  of  heat  and 
absence  of  cutting  draught  essential  to  the  proper  combi- 
nation together,  by  fusion,  of  the  wrought  and  carbonized 
iron  without  oxidation.  Substantially,  with  the  addition 
of  the  use  of  a  regenerative  furnace  and  improved  working 
details,  it  is  one  of  the  forms  of  steel-making  now  known 
as  the  Siemens  or  Siemens-Martin  processes.  By  employ- 
ing the  open-hearth  and  steel-melting  regenerative  furnace 
in  the  processes  of  steel-making,  the  highest  possible  tern- 


Open  sand  Moulding.  279  Open-sand  Moulding. 

peratures  are  attainable,  and  the  evil  effects  of  a  cutting 
flame  and  strong  draught  are  obviated. 

The  Siemens  or  ore  process  of  producing  steel  consists 
in  melting  hematite  or  other  pig  iron  free  from  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  and  then  adding  in  small  quantities  at 
a  time  an  equally  pure  ore  until  a  sample,  taken  out  from 
time  to  time,  does  not  hardeH  on  plunging  into  water 
while  red-hot.  To  the  fused  iron  spiegeleisen,  etc.,  is  then 
added.  Another  method  consists  of  a  combination  of  the 
Martin  and  the  ore  process ;  the  pig  and  scrap,  etc.,  being 
fused  together,  and  the  decarbonization  being  then  effected, 
not  through  oxidation  by  the  gases  alone,  but  by  that 
together  with  ore  added  to  the  mass.  The  Pernot  furnace 
for  steel-making  is  simply  a  Siemens-Martin  furnace  with 
a  rotating  bed,  the  hearth  being  a  saucer-shaped  cavity 
supported  by  an  iron  frame,  mounted  on  a  nearly  vertical 
axis,  and  running  on  wheels  upon  a  rail  or  guide,  supported 
on  a  stout  bogie.  The  bed  is  rotated  by  means  of  gear- 
wheels. The  charges  of  pig  iron  and  scrap  are  well  heated 
before  being  placed  on  the  hearth,  which,  when  it  is  made 
to  revolve  at  from  2  to  4  revolutions  per  minute,  causes  the 
different  pieces  to  keep  constantly  changing  their  position; 
and  this,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  one  half  of  the  bed  is 
being  alternately  brought  under  the  full  action  of  the  flame 
as  the  charge  slips  down  at  each  revolution,  brings  about  a 
very  rapid  fusion  of  the  mass.  See  REGENERATIVE  FUR- 
NACE. 

Open-sand  Moulding. — The  process  of  moulding 
castings  that  have  one  plain  side,  in  the  sand  floor  of  the 
foundry.  Even  for  such  castings  it  is  usual  to  cover  them 
with  a  cope,  which,  when  secured,  permits  of  pressure  being 
applied  to  force  the  metal  close  to  the  upper  surface,  so  that 
the  casting  has  nearly  the  same  appearance  all  over;  but 
when  the  metal  is  poured  into  an  open  mould  it  must  as- 


Ordnance  280  Ordnance. 

sume  a  horizontal  position  of  its  own  accord.  If,  when  the 
open  mould  has  been  cast,  fine  dry  sand  is  scattered  evenly 
over  the  surface  of  molten  iron  to  the  depth  of  one-fourth 
of  an  inch,  it  will  shield  the  metal  from  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of  blisters, 
which  almost  always  rise  when  the  surface  is  left  unpro- 
tected. When  the  mass  has  solidified  more  sand  may  be 
added  with  the  shovel,  in  such  quantity  and  location  as  will 
favor  equal  cooling  of  the  whole.  See  BED. 

Ordnance  signifies,  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense, 
every  kind  of  artillery,  including  guns,  mortars,  howitzers, 
etc.  Many  of  the  early  pieces  of  ordnance  were  made  of 
hooped  bars.  The  mortar,  which  was  introduced  about 
the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  first 
European  firearm.  About  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  bronze  cannon  were  cast,  and  it  is  probable  that 
cast-iron  cannon  of  small  calibre  were  made  during  the 
sixteenth  century.  However,  there  is  positive  evidence  of 
iron  cannon  being  cast  about  1740  by  English  workmen,  who 
were  afterwards  taken  across  the  Channel  to  teach  French- 
men the  art. 

Cannon-founding  has  therefore  been  practised  nearly 
five  hundred  years;  but  it  would  appear,  from  the  wonder- 
ful specimens  in  steel  and  wrought  iron  lately  produced 
by  Armstrong,  Whit  worth,  Krupp,  and  some  others,  that 
the  art  of  casting  ordnance  was  doomed  to  decay,  as  even 
the  monster  300-pounder  rifled  Parrott  and  the  15-inch 
450-pounder  Rodman  appear  almost  insignificant  when 
compared  with  the  more  modern  steel  monsters  constructed 
by  the  above-named  inventors, 

Bronze  and  cast-iron  cannon  are  cast  in  loam  or  sand  in 
moulds  prepared  in  the  customary  manner.  They  are  cast 
vertically,  with  an  addition  to  the  length  to  make  up  for 
shrinkage,  and  also  to  carry  off  the  sullage.  It  was  for- 


Oreide.  281  Oreide. 

merly  the  practice  to  cast  them  hollow  ,  since  then,  how- 
ever, solid  ones  have  occasionally  been  preferred.  But  the 
results  were  not  satisfactory,  and  the  Eodman  principle  has 
been  extensively  adopted,  the  idea  being  to  cool  the  metal  in 
layers  from  the  inside  outwards,  thus  modifying  the  initial 
strain  upon  the  gun,  and  producing  the  best  results  that  may 
be  expected  from  cast  iron  for  ordnance  purposes.  The 
method  is  to  flow  cold  water  through  the  core-barrel  dur- 
ing the  process  of  casting  and  for  a  stated  time  afterwards, 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the  casting.  The  manner  of 
constructing  the  mould  is  as  follows  :  The  mould  is  a  dry- 
sand  one,  contained  in  circular'  sectional  casings  of  length 
sufficient  for  the  casting  with  its  sinking  head.  The  chief 
feature  is  the  core-barrel,  which  consists  of  a  sound,  water- 
tight cast  pipe  or  barrel,  with  flutes  on  its  exterior  surface 
along  its  whole  length,  to  permit  the  gas  to  escape  upwards 
from  behind  the  hemp  and  loam  with  which  the  barrel  is 
coated.  After  the  mould  has  been  closed  together  the  bar- 
rel is  attached  to  a  spider  or  tripod,  the  legs  of  which  rest 
upon  the  top  flange  of  the  casing  ;  adjustable  screws  at 
the  ends  of  each  leg  admit  of  a  ready  adjustment  of  the 
core  after  it  has  been  suspended  and  lowered  into  its  place 
in  the  mould.  The  water  for  cooling  is  led  to  the  bottom 
of  the  core-barrel  by  a  pipe  which  stands  central  in  the 
space;  ifc  then  ascends  through  the  annular  space  between 
the  pipe  and  the  barrel,  and  flows  off  by  a  suitable  arrange- 
ment at  the  top.  For  a  15-inch  gun  treated  this  way  the 
barrel  may  be  withdrawn  in  about  twenty  hours,  after 
which  a  continuous  flow  of  cold  air  is  forced  through  the 
bore  until  the  casting  is  cool  enough  to  be  removed,  which 
in  this  case  is  about  nine  or  ten  days.  See  SPIDER  ;  OORE- 
BARREL  ;  DRY-SAND  MOULDING. 

Oreide. — An  alloy  supposed  to  be  of  French  origin;  it 
is  used  as  a  substitute  for  "ormolu"  in  the  manufacture 


Ores.  282  Ores. 

of  cheap  jewelry,  excelling  the  latter  alloy  very  much  in 
its  gold-like  character.  First,  melt  copper  100,  then  add 
and  stir  well  in  magnesia  6,  sal-ammoniac  3.6,  quicklime 
9.12,  tartar  of  commerce  9,  and  zinc  or  tin  17,  in  the  order 
as  given.  This  must  be  kept  fusing  about  three  quarters 
of  an  hour  before  it  is  used. 

Copper  80,  zinc  13.5,  nickel  6.5  is  recommended  as  equal 
to  the  former  as  an  oreide  mixture.  See  ORMOLU;  MOSAIC 
GOLD;  MOCK  GOLD;  GOLD;  TOMBAC. 

Ores  are  the  mineral  bodies  from  which  metals  are 
extracted,  the  latter  being  found  therein  sometimes  in  a 
metallic  state,  and  so  nearly  pure  as  to  be  called  native 
metals.  But  it  is  generally  in  a  state  of  ore  that  metal 
occurs,  that  is,  in  combination  with  its  mineralizing  sub- 
stance. , 

When  metals  combine  in  the  metallic  state  they  are 
termed  alloys;  combined  with  acids,  they  form  carbon- 
ates, bromides,  phosphates,  chlorides,  etc.,  and  are  then 
designated  metallic  salts.  With  sulphur  they  form  sul- 
phurets  and  sulphides;  and,  again,  combined  with  oxygen 
they  form  the  numerous  oxides. 

The  soil  and  rocks  consist  of  metallic  oxides,  but  the 
chief  metals  are  not  so  widely  disseminated.  They  are 
found  in  various  places  and  at  different  depths  below  the 
surface,  in  the  form  of  seams,  beds,  or  mineral  veins,  and 
sometimes  as  lodes  (See  LODE).  The  treatment  of  ores  for 
obtaining  the  metal  is  mechanical  and  chemical,  the  more 
valuable  ores  requiring  considerable  care  in  their  manage- 
ment; but  the  operations  vary  considerably,  according  to 
the  kind  of  ore  under  treatment. 

The  ores  of  lead  and  tin  when  brought  to  the  surface 
are  at  once  sorted,  and  the  purest  lumps  set  aside  for  treat- 
ment in  the  smelting-furnace  ;  what  is  left,  after  being 
subjected  to  a  crushing  or  hammering' process,  is  again 


Ores.  283  Ormulo. 

sorted.  What  remains  is  then  crushed  in  revolving  cylin- 
ders and  passes  through  sieves,  the  finer  residue  being  agi- 
tated in  water  by  a  process  termed  jigging.  The  crushing 
is  completed  in  the  stamping -mill,  where  the  ore  is  repeat- 
edly pounded  and  washed,  and  the  powdered  ores  settle  in 
layers,  according  to  their  specific  gravity. 

The  chemical  treatment  of  ores  is  invariably  twofold — 
roasting  or  calcining,  and  reducing.  (See  CALCINATION.) 
If  they  contain  volatile  products,  as  sulphur  and  arsenic, 
which  may  be  removed  by  oxidation  or  heat,  they  are  first 
roasted.  This  is  accomplished  in  a  kind  of  reverberatory 
furnace,  where  the  fuel  is  served  at  one  end  and  the  flame 
and  heated  gases  are  reverberated  or  thrown  down  from 
the  arched  roof  of  the  furnace  upon  the  ore,  which  is 
distributed  over  its  bed.  In  this  way  ores  are  oxidized. 
Should  the  ore  contain  sulphur,  it  is  burned  off  and  passes 
away  as  sulphurous  acid,  while  arsenic  escapes  in  the  form 
of  arsenious  acid.  Sometimes  lead  is  at  once  procured  by 
the  operation  of  roasting,  or  it  is  changed  to  the  state  of 
oxide,  which  necessitates  another  process  to  set  it  free. 

Eeduction  of  ores  means  the  chemical  process  of  deoxid- 
ation,  or  smelting.  It  is  effected  by  heating  them  to  a 
high  temperature  in  contact  with  substances  which  take 
the  oxygen  from  the  metal  by  superior  affinity.  Carbon 
is  the  chief  among  deoxidizing  agents,  and  removes  the 
oxygen  in  the  form  of  carbonic  oxide  and  carbonic  acid. 
For  the  removal  of  the  numerous  earthy  impurities,  sub- 
stances are  employed  which  are  called  fluxes  ;  these  readily 
combine  with  them  in  a  molten  condition  and  flow  off  as  a 
slag.  See  CAST  IRON  ;  REDUCTION  OF  ORES. 

Organ-pipes  are  usually  made  from  a  composition  of 
tin  9,  lead  1,  subject  to  slight  variations.  See  ALLOYS; 
WHITE  ALLOYS;  TIN;  LEAD. 

Ormolu. — A   variety  of  brass   having  a  near  resem- 


Ormolu  Dipping  Acid.  284  Ounce. 

blance  to  gold,  containing  from  25  to  50  of  zinc  to  50  of 
copper,  according  to  the  tint  desired.  To  successfully  fuse 
this  alloy,  let  the  zinc  be  added  to  the  fused  copper  at  the 
lowest  temperature  possible,  gradually  introducing  the  zinc 
until  the  whole  amount  has  been  added.  In  many  cases  it 
is  used  for  the  ornamentation  of  furniture.  A  gold  lacquer 
is  sometimes  used  to  heighten  the  color  of  the  alloy,  but 
the  native  color  of  the  metal  may  be  preserved  if  properly 
brought  out  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid,  then  washing  in 
water,  and  applying  a  liquor  varnish  to  keep  it  from 
tarnishing.  See  BRASS;  DIPPING;  STAINS  FOR  METALS; 
OREIDE. 

Ormolu  Dipping  Acid  for  Sheet  Brass.— 

Sulphuric  acid  2  gallons,  nitric  acid  1  pint,  muriatic  acid 
1  pint,  water  1  pint,  nitre  12  pounds.  Put  in  the  muriatic 
acid  last,  a  little  at  a  time,  and  stir  with  a  stick.  For  cast 
brass:  Sulphuric  acid  1  quart,  nitre  1  quart,  water  1  quart; 
a  little  muriatic  acid  may  be  added  or  omitted.  See  DIP- 
PING. 

Ormolued  Brass  Dipping  Acid.— Sulphuric 
acid  1  gallon,  nitric  acid  1  gallon.  This  is  a  quick  bright 
dipping  acid  for  brass-work  that  has  been  already  or- 
molued.  See  DIPPING. 

Osmium. — This  metal  was  discovered  by  Tennant  in 
1803.  It  belongs  to  the  class  usually  termed  "  noble/'  and 
occurs  in  association  with  platinum  in  the  form  of  an  alloy 
with  iridium.  It  is  the  least  fusible  "of  all  the  metals,  as 
the  oxyhydrogen  jet  will  volatilize,  but  not  fuse  it.  This 
metal,  like  iridium,  is  extensively  employed  for  tipping 
gold  pens.  See  METALS. 

Ounce. — A  division  of  the  pound  weight  in  English. 


Ovens  for  Drying  Moulds.  285  Ovens  for  Drying  Moulds. 

In  Troy  weight  it  means  the  twelfth  part  of  a  pound,  and 
weighs  480  grains.  In  avoirdupois  weight  the  ounce  is  the 
sixteenth  part  of  a  pound,  and  equal  to  437J  grains  Troy. 

Ovens  for  Drying  Moulds  and  Cores.— Much 
subsequent  annoyance  and  loss  is  saved  by  exercising 
forethought  with  regard  to  location,  size,  and  style  of  oven 
when  it  has  been  decided  to  build  a  new  or  make  extensive 
alterations  in  an  old  foundry.  Some  moulds,  owing  to 
their  magnitude  and  form,  must  necessarily  be  built  in  the 
casting-pit  and  dried  there.  The  pit  becomes,  in  such 
cases,  a  drying  stove  or  oven  by  simply  closing  the  mouth 
and  building  open  fires  at  convenient  places  on  the  bottom 
if  wood  or  bituminous  coal  is  used  for  fuel;  if  anthra- 
cite coal  must  be  the  fuel,  then  recourse  must  be  had  to 
extemporized  exterior  fireplaces,  with  suitable  arrange- 
ments for  creating  a  draught.  It  is,  however,  possible,  in 
some  instances,  to  build  large  moulds  in  sections,  and  by 
this  means  convey  all  the  parts  to  the  oven  to  be  dried— 
a  very  superior  way  when  it  can  be  done.  Temporary 
contrivances  for  drying  small  cores  are  to  be  met  with  in 
almost  every  foundry,  from  the  rim  and  bottom-plate  of 
the  heating  stove  to  the  more  elaborate  device  consisting 
of  wrought-  or  cast-iron  sides  bolted  together,  inside  of 
which  are  slides  to  rest  shelves  upon,  the  top  having  a  hole 
with  raised  edge  to  receive  a  stove-pipe.  The  hinged  door 
may  be  the  full  size  of  the  oven,  so  as  to  expose  all  parts 
of  the  oven  at  once.  An  ordinary  fire-pot,  with  provision 
for  draught  underneath,  can  be  set  down  in  the  floor  and 
this  oven  set  over  it,  or  the  plates  may  be  long  enough  to 
permit  the  fireplace  to  be  enclosed  within  the  structure, 
and  thus  make  the  oven  a  portable  one. 

Millet's  patent  core-oven  for  small  cores  is  a  brick  struc- 
ture with  an  iron  front,  to  which  is  attached  the  necessary 
hinges  for  swinging  the  perforated  shelves  in  and  out. 


Ovens  for  Drying  Moulds.  286  Ovens  for  Drying  Moulds. 

Each  of  the  shelves  works  independently,  and,  by  means 
of  a  duplicate  door  on  the  back,  the  oven  is  closed,  thus 
retaining  the  heat  in  the  oven  while  the  cores  are  being 
loaded  or  unloaded.  It  will  be  seen  that  no  heat  escapes. 
Cores  may  be  handled  with  dispatch,  as  all  operations  are 
conducted  outside,  so  that  both  fuel  and  time  are  econo- 
mized. Other  excellent  ovens  for  small  cores  may  be 
obtained  from  the  supply  dealers  at  a  very  low  cost,  which 
when  placed  down  on  the  floor  and  a  pipe  connection 
made  are  at  once  ready  for  use. 

Steam-heated  ovens  are  now  very  numerous.  They  con- 
sist of  steam-piping  laid  direct  from  the  boiler  to  the  oven, 
where  a  valve  controls  the  amount  of  steam  allowed  to 
enter  a  system  of  coils,  which  latter  constitute  the  core 
shelves  as  well,  being  set  somewhat  slanting  for  drainage. 
Sixty  pounds  steam-pressure  in  the  coils  give  a  tempera- 
ture in  the  oven  of  250°,  which  is  sufficient  to  dry  ordinnry 
cores  without  the  possibility  of  burning  them ;  an  increased 
pressure  will,  of  course,  give  greater  heat.  Ventilation  is 
perhaps  best  secured  by  a  somewhat  loose-fitting  door  and 
an  outlet  at  the  bottom  of  the  wall.  The  ordinary  ovens 
for  drying  large  moulds  and  cores  are^  as  a  rule;  very 
defective,  lacking  in  suitable  rack  and  ca'rriage  accommo- 
dation,— two  very  important  features,  well  worthy  of  more 
than  ordinary  consideration.  To  save  the  annoyance  and 
loss  attendant  on  moving  heavy  loads  in  and  out  of  the 
oven,  they  may  very  readily  be  constructed  of  two  main 
walls  of  masonry,  having  hinge  fixings  built  in  them  on 
the  top  and  ends,  to  which  plate-iron  doors  may  be  accu- 
rately hinged.  When  the  moulds  are  ready  for  the  oven, 
the  covers  are  thrown  back  and  the  end  or  ends  opened,  so 
that  a  free  passage  is  made  for  loading  direct  from  the 
crane  to  the  oven,  and  thus  obviating  the  jarring  of  the 
moulds  which  usually  attends  transit  on  carriages.  Clos- 
ing over  the  top  covers  and  shutting  in  the  ends  converts 


Overhead  Cranes.  287  Oxide,  Carbonic. 

this  into  an  admirable  oven  at  once,  which,  when  the 
moulds  are  dry,  may  be  opened  again  and  become,  as  it 
were,  part  of  the  foundry  floor,  on  which  the  moulds  may 
rest  safely  until  required  for  closing  and  casting.  For 
description  and  details  of  special  large  oven  constructed 
by  the  author,  see  "  The  Iron  Founder,"  p.  52.  See  also 
DAMPER;  ROTARY  OVENS. 

Overhead  Cranes. — See  CRANES  ;  IRON-CARRIER. 

Oxalic  Acid. — This  substance  exists  as  binoxalate  of 
potash  in  common  sorrel  and  the  rhubarb  plant,  which 
accounts  for  the  acid  taste  common  to  those  vegetables. 
As  oxalate  of  soda  it  is  found  in  the  barilla  plant,  and  as 
oxcilate  of  lime  in  lichens.  It  is  commonly  prepared  by 
the  oxidation  of  sugar  or  starch  with  nitric  acid  :  1  part  of 
sugar  is  dissolved  in  8  parts  of  nitric  acid  and  gently 
heated,  when  intense  action  ensues,  with  a  copious  disen- 
gagement of  nitrous-acid  fumes.  The  crystals  obtained 
are  sour  and  poisonous,  resembling  Epsom  salts,  for  which 
they  are  often  mistaken.  Chalk  or  magnesia  suspended  in 
water  acts  as  an  antidote  in  cases  of  poisoning.  This  acid 
is  extensively  used  in  calico-printing,  and  is  also  employed 
as  a  test  for  the  presence  of  lime.  It  also  removes  ink  and 
iron  stains  from  cloth  by  forming  a  soluble  oxalate  of  iron, 
but  the  fabric  suffers  injury  if  the  acid  be  not  washed  off 
immediately. 

Oxidation. — The  process  or  converting  metals  or 
other  substances  into  oxides,  by  combining  with  them  a 
certain  portion  of  oxygen.  It  differs  from  acidification  in 
the  addition  of  oxygen  not  being  sufficient  to  form  an  acid 
with  the  substance  oxidized.  See  OXIDES;  OXYGEN. 

Oxide,  Carbonic.— When  a  mixture  of  purified 
charcoal  and  oxide  of  iron  or  zinc  is  exposed  to  a  strong 


Oxides.  Oxygen. 

heat  in  an  iron  retort,  the  metallic  oxide  is  gradually  re- 
duced, and  during  the  reduction  a  great  quantity  of  gas  is 
evolved.  This  gas  is  a  mixture  of  carbonic-acid  gas  and 
another  gas,  which  burns  with  a  blue  flame  and  is  called 
carbonic  oxide.  See  GAS;  OXYGEN. 

Oxides.—  Substances  combined  with  oxygen  without 
being  in  a  state  of  acid.  The  metallic  oxides  are  the  most 
important,  and  occur  naturally  as  abundant  and  valuable 
ores.  See  METALS;  OIIES  ;  REDUCTION  OF  ORES;  Oxr- 

GEN. 

Oxidized  Metal  is  silver  or  other  metal  subjected 
to  a  process  of  dipping  into  a  boiling  solution  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  or  ammonium  sulphide,  continuing  the  pro- 
cess until  the  required  degree  of  discoloration  has  taken 
place.  It  may  then  be  varnished  with  non-transparent 
varnish  consisting  of  alcohol  18,  red  arsenic  3,  castor- 
oil  1.  See  DIPPING;  LACQUERING;  STAINING  METALS. 

Oxygen. — This  gas  was  obtained  by  Dr.  Priestley  in 
1774  from  red  oxide  of  mercury  exposed  to  a  burning  lens, 
and  again  in  the  following  year  by  the  Swedish  chemist 
Scheele.  With  regard  to  the  importance  of  this  great  dis- 
covery Prof.  Liebig  observes:  " Since  the  discovery  of  oxy- 
gen the  civilized  world  has  undergone  a  revolution  in  man- 
ners and  customs.  The  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere,  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  of  water, 
and  of  their  influence  upon  the  life  of  plants  and  animals, 
was  linked  with  that  discovery.  The  successful  pursuit  of 
innumerable  trades  and  manufactures,  the  profitable  sepa- 
ration of  metals  from  their  ores,  also  stand  in  the  closest 
connection  therewith.  It  may  well  be  said  that  the  material 
prosperity  of  empires  has  increased  manifold  since  the  time 
oxygen  became  known,  and  the  fortune  of  every  individual 


Oxyhydrogen  Blowpipe.  289  Oyster  shells. 

has  been  augmented  in  proportion."  Eight  ninths  of  water 
consist  of  oxygen;  it  forms  one  fifth  of  air  and  about 
one  half  of  silica,  chalk,  and  alumina,  which  three  constitute 
the  chief  substances  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  is  abso- 
lutely essential  for  the  support  of  animal  life.  In  mechan- 
ical combination  with  nitrogen  it  forms  the  atmosphere 
surrounding  the  globe,  and  is  given  off  by  all  growing  plants 
when  under  the  influence  of  sunlight.  Its  chemical  affinities 
for  other  elementary  substances  are  very  powerful,  combin- 
ing with  all  except  fluorine.  Owing  to  the  intensity  with 
which  many  of  these  combinations  takes  place,  this  gas  has 
the  power  of  supporting  combustion  in  an  eminent  degree. 
It  is  tasteless,  colorless,  inodorous,  and  has  hitherto  resisted 
all  attempts  to  liquify  it.  Combustion  is  nothing  more 
than  a  chemical  union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the 
combustible  body  or  some  of  its  elements.  We  make  the 
fire  hotter  by  bringing  more  air  in  contact  with  the  fuel. 
See  COMBUSTION";  FLAME,  etc. 

Oxyhydrogen  Blowpipe.— An  apparatus  for 
burning  oxygen  and  hydrogen  together  to  produce  very 
high  temperature.  Now  extensively  used  for  melting  plati- 
num and  other  metals.  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  pass 
through  separate  tubes  and  mix  at  the  mouth  of  the  jet, 
producing  the  most  intense  heat  known. 

Oyster-shells. — The  carbonate  of  lime  being  the 
prevalent  component  of  the  oyster-shell,  it  has  on  that  ac- 
count been  substituted  for  limestone  as  a  flux  in  the  cupola 
at  many  foundries.  But  shells  are  not  as  effective  for  this 
purpose  as  good  limestone,  owing  to  the  adhering  impu- 
rities, which  invariably  contain  some  phosphorus.  See 
SHELLS;  LIMESTONE  FLUX ;  FLUX;  PHOSPHORUS. 


Packfong.  290  Pan. 


P. 

Packfong. — An  alloy  much  used  by  the  Chinese,  and 
by  them  called  "  white  copper,"  consists  of  copper  40.4, 
nickel  31.6,  zinc  25.4,  iron  2.6.  See  GERMAN-SILVER  ; 
WHITE  ALLOYS. 

Packing  Sand. — The  process  of  forcing  sand  into 
the  flasks  or  around  patterns  bedded  in  the  floor  is  some- 
times termed  packing.  See  RAMMING. 

Palladium. — This  metal  closely  resembles  platinum 
in  color  and  appearance  ;  it  is  also  very  malleable  and 
ductile.  It  is  not  so  dense  as  platinum,  being  only  11.8, 
and  it  is  more  easily  oxidized  than  that  metal,  but  cannot 
be  melted  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Palladium  readily 
alloys  with  other  metals.  When  alloyed  with  silver  it  is  very 
suitable  for  the  graduations  on  mathematical  instruments, 
etc.  It  is  used  also  as  a  galvanizing  agent  for  protecting 
other  metals  when  amalgamated  with  mercury,  the  iron  or 
other  articles  being  cleansed  previously,  as  for  zinking. 
See  METALS;  ZINKING. 

Pan,  or  Kettle,  is  usually  a  wide,  shallow,  round  or 
spherical  -  shaped  vessel,  of  cast-iron  or  other  metal,  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  salt  chemicals,  soap, 
tin-plate,  and  in  the  various  processes  connected  with 
metallurgy.  For  sugar-refining  there  are  evaporating-pans, 
vacuum-pans,  condensing-kettles,  vats,  coolers,  etc.  Salt- 
pans are  usually  very  wide  and  shallow,  and  are  set  in  rows 
over  a  furnace.  The  brine  is  pumped  into  them,  the  heat 
evaporates  the  water,  and  the  salt  precipitates.  The  chem- 
ical works  employ  large  numbers  of  pans  of  different  shapes, 
heavy  and  light,  such  as  the  flat  furnace-pans,  8  to  10  feet 


Paper-moulding.  291  Paper-moulding. 

across,  which  are  sometimes  over  6  inches  thick  at  the 
crown;  lighter  ones,  as  crystallizing  cones,  etc.,  are  used  in 
large  numbers.  Pans  for  soap-making  are  termed  "  boilers," 
and  consist  of  a  deep,  circular,  tapered  pan  with  a  spherical 
bottom.  Brackets  cast  on  the  sides  serve  to  set  the  pan  on 
standards  over  the  fire.  Pans  used  for  tin-plate  are  of  cast 
iron.  They  are  set  in  a  row,  and  are  named,  respectively, 
the  tin-pot,  wash-pot,  grease-pot,  pan,  and  list-pot.  Pans 
for  metallurgical  purposes  are  termed  amalgamators,  being 
usually  an  open,  flat-bottomed,  pan  in  which  the  pulverized 
ore  and  mercury  are  ground  together  between  slabs  of  stone 
or  metal.  (See  AMALGAMATION.)  Owing  to  the  great  de- 
mand for  castings  of  this  class,  much  ingenuity  has  been 
practised  for  moulding  them  readily,  resulting  in  well- 
established  methods  of  production,  which  far  excel  the 
ordinary  systems  of  moulding.  See  KETTLE;  CASING. 

Paper-moulding  consists  of  grinding  old  paper 
along  with  other  materials  into  a  pulp,  which  by  the  aid  of 
presses  and  other  machinery  is  moulded  into  the  required 
form,  dried,  and  then  subjected  to  the  processes  of  sizing, 
decorating,  etc.  It  is  used  extensively  in  the  production 
of  architectural  ornaments,  etc.,  being  less  brittle  than 
plaster  for  that  purpose.  By  mixing  white  of  egg,  sul- 
phate of  iron,  glue,  or  quicklime,  etc.,  with  the  pulp  it  is 
partly  made  waterproof,  and  to  make  it  almost  fireproof 
it  only  requires  a  further  admixture  of  borax  and  sulphate 
of  soda.  Another  method  of  producing  articles  in  paper  is 
to  glue  sheets  of  paper  together  and  then  subject  the  whole 
to  powerful  pressure  in  dies  accurately  fashioned  to  the 
form  of  article  to  be  made.  This  operation  is  performed 
when  the  sheets  are  moist,  which  admits  of  the  requisite 
curvature  and  flexure  without  damage  to  the  article,  which 
when  dry  becomes  as  hard  as  board,  and  is  then  ready  to 


.Paper-parting.  Parallel  Straight-edges. 

•  "     ..""-'•>**. 

be   operated  upon   by  the  japanners,  inlayers,  and   other 
artists  in*  ornamentation. 

Paper-parting.— Ordinary  moulding- sand  will  not 
adhere  to  paper  that  is  free  from  substances  of  a  gummy  or 
gluey  nature,  no  matter  how  hard  it  has  been  rammed 
thereon.  For  this  reason  it  makes  an  excellent  substitute 
for  parting-sand  at  parts  of  a  joint  where  it  is  difficult  to 
apply  the  sand  in  either  a  wet  or  dry  condition.  See  PART- 
ING; JOINT;  PARTIJSTG-SA^D. 

Paper  Sheathing  for  Studs.— It  is  sometimes 
convenient  to  use  a  plain  stem  chaplet  at  parts  of  a  casting 
where  there  is  not  sufficient  body  of  metal  to  partially  fuse, 
and  thus  fasten  it.  In  such  a  case  the  surrounding  cast 
iron  is  chilled,  and  it  is  with  great  difficulty  that  a  thread 
can  be  made  by  which  to  insert  a  plug.  If,  before  the 
chaplet  is  inserted  in  the  mould,  a  thick  layer  of  paper  be 
glued  thereon  and  an  extra  coat  of  silver-lead  applied,  the 
hole  will  be  clean  and  the  metal  soft  for  tapping. 

Paraffine  is  a  product  of  the  distillation  of  wood  (es- 
pecially beech-wood),  coal,  and  petroleum.  It  is  a  white, 
hard,  inodorous,  tasteless,  crystalline  solid,  resembling  sper- 
maceti. It  melts  at  111°,  and  is  formed  into  candles,  which 
burn  with  a  very  bright  flame.  It  is  a  pure  hydrocarbon. 
Paraffin e-oil  is  the  term  given  to  the  thin  oily  matter 
given  off  during  the  process  of  distillation.  See  PETRO- 
LEUM. 

Parallel  Straight-edges  are  two  straight  strips 
of  wood  or  metal,  of  equal  widths  along  their  length.  By 
setting  them  edge  up,  some  distance  apart,  on  a  pattern  or 
mould,  and  allowing  the  eye  to  range  along  the  upper  edges 
of  both,  any  deviation  from  a  true  and  even  surface  is  soon 


Paris  Gold.  293  Parting-sand. 

discovered,  the  eye   being  very  quick  to  de 
crepancy,    See  LEVEL;  BED. 

Paris  Gold. — A  cheap  imitation  of  th 
See  OREIDE;  TOMBAC. 

Parisian  White  Metal  is  composed  of  copper 
zinc  5.5,  cadmium  4.7,  nickel  19.8.     See  WHITE  ALLOYS. 

Part. — A  foundry  term,  used  to  signify  any  one  of  the 
sections  composing  a  set  of  flasks  ;  as  top-part,  middle- 
part,  bottom-part,  etc.  See  FLASKS. 

Particle. — A  minute  part  of  matter,  an  assemblage  of 
general  atoms,  of  which  natural  bodies  are  composed,  as  a 
particle  of  sand,  etc. 

Parting. — The  joint  or  point  of  separation  in  moulds 
composed  of  two  or  more  sections.  A  suitably  prepared 
surface  at  some  portion  of  a  mould  that  will  permit  one 
part  to  be  separated  from  another  without  fracturing  the 
sand  structure.  I?or  a  separation  of  plain  moulds  con- 
tained in  a  cope  arid  nowel,  the  sand-joint  is  made  smooth 
and  sprinkled  all  over  with  dry  parting-sand,  which  pre- 
vents any  portion  of  the  sand  rammed  over  it  in  the  cope 
from  adhering  thereto.  But  should  any  portion  of  such 
joint  assume  a  vertical  or  other  form  than  the  horizontal, 
the  parting-sand  must  be  moistened  before  it  will  adhere 
to  the  joint  surface;  especially  is  this  the  case  with  draw- 
backs, which  separate  in  a  vertical  position.  In  either  of 
the  latter-mentioned  cases  paper  may  be  substituted  for  the 
moistened  parting-sand.  See  DRAWBACKS;  PAPER-PART- 
ING ;  PARTING-SAND. 

Parting-sand  is  sand  specially  adapted  to  the  pre- 
vention of  joint,  or  separating  surfaces  amalgamating  when 


Paste.  294  Paste  Gems. 

they  have  been  rammed  against  each  other.  Beach  and 
river  sands  are  eminently  adapted  for  this  purpose,  as  all 
clayey  compounds  have,  by  the  action  of  the  water,  been 
washed  out.  New  fine  free  sand,  well  burnt  to  eliminate 
every  trace  of  clay,  is  adapted  for  use  as  a  parting-sand;  and 
it  may  be  said  that  the  beach  and  river  sands  have  their 
parting  qualities  enhanced  by  burning,  the  burnt  cores 
from  the  castings  being  always  preferred  to  the  new  sands. 
See  PARTING  ;  JOINT  ;  etc. 

Paste. — Foundry-paste  is  simply  flour  mixed  with 
water  to  a  consistency  suitable  for  the  joining  together  of 
dry-sand  cores  and  moulds  that  are  made  in  sections.  It 
may  also  be  used  in  the  coring  of  moulds  when  it  is  desir- 
able to  effectually  prevent  the  escape  of  metal  at  the  points 
of  junction,  its  spreading  quality  permitting  the  soft,  yield- 
ing mass  to  be  forced  into  every  crevice,  where,  if  the  mould 
be  hot  enough,  it  dries  into  a  hard  impenetrable  mass. 
There  is  much  danger,  however,  in  using  too  much  paste, 
especially  in  cold  moulds.  When  the  molten  metal  enters 
the  mould  the  wet  surfaces  are  at  once  converted  into 
steam,  which,  if  not  all  ejected  during  the  process  of  cast- 
ing, seldom  fails  in  producing  blow-holes  at  some  part  or 
other.  See  SIZE;  BLISTER;  BLOW-HOLES. 

Paste  Gems  are  a  glass  imitation  of  precious  stones, 
made  from  a  combination  of  silica,  potash,  borax,  red  oxide 
of  lead,  with  some  arsenic.  This  is  fused  gently  in  Hessian 
crucibles,  in  the  furnace,  for  about  twenty- four  hours,  and 
it  then  becomes  a  base  for  the  manufacture  of  all  the  spu- 
rious gems.  For  the  ruby,  72  parts  of  oxide  of  manganese 
are  mixed  with  2880  parts  of  the  paste;  emerald — green 
oxide  of  copper  42,  and  oxide  of  chrome  2,  to  paste  4608 
parts — sapphire:  oxide  of  cobalt  68,  to  paste  4608  parts; 
fused  for  thirty  hours.  Amethyst — oxide  of  manganese 


Patent  Fluxes.  295  Patent  Fluxes. 

36,  oxide  of  cobalt  24,  purple  of  cassius  1,  to  paste  4608. 
The  tints  of  the  real  stone  are  so  exactly  imitated  in  many 
of  these  imitations  as  to  deceive  any  but  the  best,  judges. 
See  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Patent  Fluxes. — In  addition  to  the  limestone,  fluor- 
spar, and  other  fluxes,  used  in  the  cupola,  blast-furnaces, 
puddling-furnace,  smelting  and  refining,  steel,  and  copper 
and  brass  works,  there  are  numerous  other  compounds,  etc., 
which  are  protected  by  letters-patent,  by  the  use  of  which 
it  is  claimed  that  steel  can  be  welded  to  steel  or  iron,  with 
the  best  results;  preventing  the  metal  from  burning  by 
flowing  easily,  and  enveloping  it  so  as  to  exclude  the  air. 
For  cupola-melting  it  is  claimed  they  will  save  fuel,  im- 
prove iron,  make  clean  cupolas,  and  other  improvements 
too  numerous  to  mention. 

Mr.  Kirk,  author  of  "  Founding  of  Metals,"  is  the  inven- 
tor of  a  flux  for  the  cupola,  and  in  presenting  his  compound 
says  as  follows:  (f  It  will  make  hard  iron  soft,  will  reduce 
the  percentage  of  iron  lost  in  melting,  will  cleanse  iron 
of  impurities,  will  flux  the  cupola,  and  make  a  brittle  slag. 
In  introducing  this  compound  as  a  cupola-flux,  we  intro- 
duce an  entirely  different  theory  of  fluxing  from  that  used 
in  a  blast-furnace,  or  that  formerly  used  in  the  cupola,  for 
we  propose  to  flux  the  iron  entirely  with  the  gases  gener- 
ated by  the  compound,  and  not  with  the  slag  formed  by  it. 
The  chemicals  which  we  use  in  the  compound  are  very 
rich  in  carbon,  and  when  distributed  over  the  fuel  and 
heated  by  it  they  generate  a  very  strong  carbonic  gas  in 
the  cupola,  and  this  gas  is  absorbed  by  the  iron  from  the 
time  it  begins  to  heat  until  it  is  drawn  out  of  the  cupola ; 
so  that  we  have  a  great  deal  more  time  to  operate  upon  it 
than  any  of  the  mineral  fluxes  do,  yet  we  do  not  have  time 
enough  to  change  an  iron  from  one  extreme  to  the  other, 


Pattern.  296  Pattern 

and  can  only  improve  it  to  a  certain  extent  at  one  melting; 
but  by  continued  re-melting  with  the  compound  we  can 
change  the  hardest  of  iron  to  the  softest.  If  any  founder 
doubts  this  theory  of  fluxing  and  improving  iron  by  the 
gases,  he  has  only  to  throw  sufficient  brimstone  into  his 
cupola  on  the  fuel  to  form  a  sulphuric  gas  in  the  cupola, 
and  he  will  find  his  iron  to  be  as  hard  as  glass;  and  if  iron 
can  be  hardened  by  one  gas,  it  can  be  softened  by  another." 
See  FLUX;  CUPOLA;  SLAG. 

Pattern. — In  moulding,  the  pattern  is  a  counterpart 
of  the  casting  required,  from  which  the  moulder  obtains  an 
impression  in  sand  or  other  plastic  substance.  This  im- 
pression obtained,  it  remains  to  fill  the  space,  previously 
occupied  by  the  pattern,  with  molten  metal,  which  when 
solidified  is  a  true  representation  in  metal  of  the  pattern 
supplied,  less  the  shrinkage.  Patterns  are  sometimes  called 
models,  from  the  fact  that  the  modeller  furnishes  patterns 
for  both  the  brass  and  iron  foundries  made  from  plaster  or 
stucco.  Wood  patterns  made  by  the  pattern-maker  are  by 
far  the  most  numerous,  including  as  they  must  patterns 
for  nearly  every  cast  piece  used  in  producing  the  multi- 
tudinous examples  of  structural,  machine,  and  engine  work. 
Very  much  of  moulding  is  now  accomplished  without  a  full 
pattern,  when  a  good  understanding  is  maintained  between 
the  moulder  and  the  pattern-maker.  By  a  judicious 
arrangement  of  strickles,  making-up  pieces,  and  sweeps, 
castings  are  very  often  made  almost  exclusive  of  a  pattern 
altogether;  but  this  only  occurs  when  the  ability  of  both 
artisans  is  above  the  average.  Machines  for  moulding  gears 
have  reduced  pattern-making  for  wheels  to  a  fraction  of 
what  it  formerly  was,  and  numerous  other  castings  may,  by 
the  aid  of  a  segment  and  perhaps  some  core-boxes,  be  made 
by  them  as  readily.  Besides  patterns  in  iron  and  brass, 
numerous  others  are  the  production  of  the  modeller,  made 


Pattern  Varnish.  feat. 

in  stucco  or  plaster,  and  not  a  few  are,  with  the  aid  of 
template  and  sweeps,  made  in  loam  by  the  moulder  him- 
self. See  LOAM-PATTERNS;  BACKING-OUT;  SPINDLE. 

Pattern  Varnish. — Usually  wood  patterns  are  made 
from  white  straight-grained  pine,  which,  while  it  is  an 
excellent  material  for  working  and  keeping  its  shape,  is 
very  soft  and  porous.  If  such  patterns  are  moulded  from 
without  any  subsequent  treatment,  the  pores  soon  fill  with 
sand-dust,  which  adheres  firmly  to  the  moulding-sand  and 
leaves  a  scarred  surface  on  the  mould.  To  prevent  this 
the  patterns  should  receive  a  good  coat  of  varnish  made 
from  one  pound  of  shellac  digested  in  one  gallon  of  alcohol 
with  as  much  lamp-black  as  will  color  it.  After  this  has 
thoroughly  dried,  rub  off  with  fine  sand-paper  and  apply 
another  coat  of  the  varnish  slightly  diluted  with  alcohol. 
See  VARNISH. 

Pea-ore. — A  form  of  compact  brown  iron  ore,  consist- 
ing of  round,  smooth  grains  varying  in  size  from  a  mustard- 
seed  to  a  pea.  See  ORES. 

Pease-meal. — Cheap  grades  of  this  valuable  food 
finds  its  way  into  the  foundry,  where  it  is  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  flour.  See  FLOUR. 

Peat  is  one  of  the  most  important  productions  of 
alluvial  ground,  composing  the  soil  of  swamps,  and  con- 
sisting of  the  twigs,  leaves,  and  roots  of  trees  mixed  with 
grass,  plants,  weeds,  earth,  etc.,  that  have  long  lain  in 
water,  and  thereby  become  decomposed  into  a  blackish- 
brown  mass  that  may  be  cut  with  the  spade  and  dried  for 
fuel.  The  better  qualities  contain  about  40  per  cent  of 
carbon.  In  Ireland  it  is  known  as  turf,  where  it  is  dug 
up,  dried,  and  used  for  fuel.  See  FUEL. 


Peck.  £98  Petroleum. 

Peck. — A  dry  measure  of  capacity,  and  equivalent  to 
two  imperial  gallons,  or  554.548  cubic  inches.  The  fourth 
part  of  a  bushel. 

Peening. — The  term  applied  to  straightening  crooked 
castings  by  hammering  the  concave  side  immediately  oppo- 
site to  the  block  or  anvil  upon  which  the  convex  side  is 
resting.  A  spherical  hammer-head  is  the  best  ordinarily 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  blows  should  be  regulated  so  that 
the  concave  side  may  be  sufficiently  expanded  with  the 
minimum  amount  of  hammering,  always  commencing  at 
the  centre  of  the  bend  and  working  out  gradually  in  every 
direction.  The  hammer  used  for  this  purpose  is  termed 
the  "  peening  "  hammer.  See  STRAIGHTENING  CASTINGS. 

Pegging-ram mer  is  sometimes  termed  the  peening- 
rammer,  and  consists  of  an  oblong  piece  of  cast  or  wrought 
iron  of  different  lengths  and  widths,  and  varying  from  one 
quarter  to  one  inch  in  thickness,  secured  to  the"  end  of 
a  piece  of  tubing  or  bar  iron,  with  which  to  force  or  "ram" 
the  soft  open  sand  of  the  last  filling  firmly  down  upon  the 
preceding  course.  See  BUTT-RAMMER;  RAMMING. 

Percentage  of  Fuel  Used  for  Melting  Cast 
Iron  in  the  Cupola. — See  RATIO  OF  FUEL  TO  IRON. 

Petroleum. — Previous  to  the  discovery  of  the  value 
of  petroleum  as  an  illuminating  agent,  the  only  artificial 
light  for  domestic  and  other  similar  uses  was  the  tallow-can- 
dle and  dirty  oil-lamp;  but  when  whale  and  other  animal 
oils  became  too  costly,  resort  was  had  to  natural  tar  and 
bituminous  slate  in  order  to  obtain  illuminating-oils,  and 
lamp-oils  were  for  a  long  time  prepared  from  wood,  resin, 
and  other  substances.  The  manufacture  of  coal-oil  was 
introduced  into  this  country  about  1853,  being  confined  to 


Petroleum. 


299  Petroleum. 


districts  where  bituminous  coal  could  be  mined  at  a  cheap 
rate. 

When  the  value  of  coal-oil  had  become  recognized,  rock- 
oil  or  petroleum  began  to  claim  attention  as  a  ready  means 
of  supplying  these  oils  cheaply,  as  it  was  found  to  be  analo- 
gous in  its  properties  to  that  distilled  from  soft  coal.  It  is 
probable  that  the  petroleum  now  found  in  the  earth  is  the 
product  of  original  decomposition,  and  of  subsequent  dis- 
tillation. Petroleum  is,  however,  rarely  found  in  contact 
with  bituminous  strata  of  any  kind,  being  usually  found 
in  fissures  of  sand  rocks,  which  fissures  serve  two  purposes — 
one,  to  give  space  for  the  formation  and  expansion  of  the 
hydrocarbon  vapor;  the  other,  to  furnish  receptacles  for 
the  condensed  oils.  To  obtain  this  oil,  one  of  these  fissures 
must  be  pierced  by  a  well,  when  in  some  instances  the  oil 
is  forced  with  such  velocity  as  to  produce  a  jet  one  hun- 
dred feet  high.  This  oil  is  found  in  great  quantities  on 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea;  at  Burmah,  in  the  East  In- 
dies; and  in  Pennsylvania,  Canada,  and  many  other  parts  of 
the  American  continent.  Fine  specimens  of  naphtha  are 
found  in  several  parts  of  Italy.  The  purer  kinds  of  rock- 
oil,  which  are  almost  colorless  and  very  thin,  are  NAPHTHA, 
while  the  more  viscid  and  darker  liquids  are  PETROLEUM. 
The  variations  of  color  and  consistence  in  rock-oils  is  ow- 
ing to  the  pitchy  and  fatty  substances  being  more  dissolved 
in  those  oils  that  are  most  fluid.  The  word  petroleum 
(rock-oil)  is  used  to  designate  the  forms  of  bitumen  that 
are  of  an  oily  consistence,  the  bitumen  passing  by  insensi- 
ble gradations  into  the  volatile  naphtha  on  the  one  hand, 
and  semi-fluid  mineral  tars  on  the  other.  Among  its  distil- 
lates are  carbon-oil,  paraffine,  naphtha,  gasoline,  and  ben- 
zine. Besides  its  use  for  illuminating  purposes,  it  is  now 
recognized  as  a  fuel  on  both  steamships  and  locomotives, 
as  well  as  for  ordinary  domestic  and  manufacturing  pur- 
poses. The  products  of  petroleum  that  have  proved  moat 


Petroieum-furnacfc.  300  iPhospiior-bronze. 

valuable  in  medicine  are  the  filtered  -paraffine  residues,  as 
cosmoline,  vaseline,  etc.,  widely  used,  plain  and  medicated, 
as  ointments.  See  BITUMEN. 

Petroleum-furnace.  —  A  furnace  in  which  petro- 
leum alone,  or  mixed  with  air  or  steam,  is  used  exclusively 
for  fuel.  See  LIQUID  FUEL;  PETROLEUM. 

Pewter.  —  A  useful  alloy  of  tin  and  lead.  The  com- 
mon or  ley-pewter  is  4  tin  and  1  lead;  plate-pewter,  100 
tin,  8  antimony,  and  2  each  of  bismuth  and  copper  ;  trifle- 
pewter,  83  tin  and  17  antimony.  The  best  pewter  is  com- 
posed of  100  parts  tin  and  17  antimony.  A  very  hard 
pewter  is  192  tin,  16  antimony,  and  4  copper.  Tin-and- 
temper  pewter  is  the  best,  and  is  made  as  follows:  Let  a 
"  temper  "  be  made  from  2  parts  tin  and  1  part  copper,  and 
to  every  pig  of  tin  weighing  about  375  pounds  add  from 
1  to  7  pounds  of  the  temper.  See  PEWTERER'S  TEMPER; 
ANTIMONY. 


Pewterer's  Solders.  —  These  are  of  three  kinds  :  the 
hard  and  soft  pale,  and  the  middling.  Hard  pale  is  made 
from  2  tin  and  1  lead  ;  for  the  soft  pale  an  addition  of  1 
bismuth  is  made;  and  for  the  middling  pale  an  equal  mixt- 
ure of  both.  See  SOLDERING;  SOLDERS. 

Pewterer's  Temper.  —  Tin  2  and  copper  1,  fused 
together,  make  the  alloy  above  named.  This  temper, 
mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  pig  tin,  produces  the 
pewter  named  "  tin-and-temper."  See  PEWTER  ;  TIN. 

Phosphor-bronze.  —  This  bronze,  according  to  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  intended,  contains  from  3  to  15 
parts  tin  to  100  copper,  with  an  addition  of  from  \  to  2| 
per  cent  of  phosphorus.  This  alloy  can  be  remelted  any 
number  of  times  without  altering  its  quality,  which  is  as 


Phosphor-copper.  301  Phosphor-copper. 

fine  as  cast  steel,  and  may  be  made  as  hard  as  that  metal 
or  as  tough  as  wrought  iron  ;  in  fact,  it  can  be  made  to 
any  degree  of  hardness,  toughness,  or  elasticity. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  introduce  the  phosphorus  into 
the  crucible,  and  very  much  of  it  is  lost  in  the  operation, 
for  which  allowance  must  be  made.  The  action  of  phos- 
phorus on  bronze  alloy  is  to  drive  out  the  oxides,  and  cause 
the  tin  to  adopt  a  crystalline  structure,  which  gives  the 
alloy  a  higher  degree  of  homogeneousness  than  in  com- 
mon bronze.  Another  important  feature  is  that  any  de- 
gree of  hardness  may  be  obtained  by  increasing  the  quan- 
tity of  phosphorus,  exclusive  of  any  further  addition  of 
tin,  the  latter  metal  being  sure  to  separate  when  used  in 
too  large  proportions.  The  more  advanced  method  of  in- 
troducing the  phosphorus  is  by  adding  phosphor  copper, 
or  phosphor  tin,  specially  prepared  for  the  purpose.  See 
PHOSPHOR-COPPER;  PHOSPHOR-TIN;  BRONZE;  COPPER. 

Phosphor-copper  is  made  by  lining  a  crucible 
with  a  mixture  composed  of  bone-ash,  18,  silica  14,  and 
powdered  carbon  4,  which  is  made  into  a  daubing  or  lining 
by  adding  glue-water  containing  4  parts  each  of  powdered 
glass  and  carbonate  of  soda.  Granulated  copper  is  charged 
after  the  lining  has  been  thoroughly  dried,  and  covered 
with  some  of  the  lining  mixture ;  after  which  the  lid  is 
luted  on  and  the  copper  melted,  when  it  will  be  found  to 
contain  about  0.52  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  The  silicic 
acid  acts  on  the  phosphate,  the  phosphoric  acid  is  reduced, 
and  taken  up  as  freed  by  the  copper. 

Another  phosphor  copper,  containing  about  9  per  cent 
of  phosphorus,  can  be  produced  by  first  making  a  phos- 
phorous mass  by  mixing  superphosphate  of  lime  with  20 
per  cent  of  charcoal  and  dehydrating  the  mixture  at  a  dull- 
red  heat.  Six  hundred  parts  of  this  mass  are  mixed  with 
975  of  copper  turnings  and  75  of  charcoal,  and  kept  at 


Phosphor  tin.  302  Phosphorus. 

copper-fusion  heat  for  sixteen  hours  in  a  graphite  crucible. 
The  phosphor  copper  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  detached 
granules,  which  are  picked  out,  re-fused,  and  cast  into 
cast-iron  ingot-moulds.  The  introduction  of  phosphorus 
into  the  metal  is  better  effected  by  means  of  these  rich 
phosphor  coppers  than  by  any  of  the  methods  adopted  for 
pushing  it  under  the  metal  in  a  crude  state.  See  PHOS- 
PHOR-BRONZE. 

Phosphor-tin  is  a  phosphide  of  tin  used  as  a  medium 
for  introducing  phosphorus  into  bronze  alloys,  and  some- 
times used  in  conjunction  with  phosphor-copper  for  that 
purpose.  It  is  made  by  heating  6  parts  of  phosphorus  with 
94  parts  of  moist  tin-sponge  prepared  from  the  chloride  by 
reduction  with  zinc.  The  sticks  of  phosphorus  are  first 
placed  in  the  crucible  and  the  tin  sponge  pressed  hard 
down.  A  gentle  heat  is  sufficient  for  this  operation,  which 
ends  when  the  burning  phosphorus  ceases  to  give  fortn 
flame,  and  a  coarse,  white,  crystalline  substance  has  formed, 
which  is  the  phosphor-tin.  See  PHOSPHOR-BRONZE. 

Phosphorus  is  one  of  the  non-metallic  elements,  and 
is  found  in  nature  only  in  combination — chiefly  as  the 
phosphate  of  lime.  It  would  appear  that  plants  require  it, 
as  more  or  less  is  found  concentrated  in  their  seeds.  The 
bodies  of  animals  contain  it  in  a  large  degree,  being  present 
in  the  nervous  tissues,  the  urine,  the  blood,  the  hair,  and 
in  the  bones,  which  contain  a  large  proportion  of  the  phos- 
phate of  lime.  The  earthy  phosphates  are  important,  as 
they  aid  in  giving  stiffness  and  inflexibility  to  the  bony 
skeleton.  Phosphorus  was  discovered  in  urine  by  Brandt 
of  Hamburg,  1669.  It  is  chiefly  made  from  bones  ;  when 
pure  it  appears  like  bleached  wax,  and  is  soft  and  flexible 
at  common  temperatures,  melts  at  44°  and  boils  at  289°. 
Phosphorus,  in  its  combining  relation,  is  more  closely  con- 


Piano-plates.  303  Picker. 

nected  with  the  metals  arsenic  and  antimony  than  with 
any  of  the  members  of  the  sulphur  group,  in  which  it  is 
commonly  placed.  See  ARSENIC;  ANTIMONY;  PHOSPHOR- 
BRONZE. 

Piano-plates. — The  importance  of  that  portion  of  a 
piano  called  the  iron  frame  or  "plate"  possessing  in  the 
highest  degree  all  the  qualities  requisite  for  a  perfect  cast- 
ing may  be  better  understood  when  it  is  known  that  in 
pianos  of  the  largest  size  the  sum  of  the  tension  of  the 
strings,  when  stretched  in  attuning,  reaches  33  tons.  It  is 
therefore  natural  to  suppose  that  skill  of  the  highest  order 
is  brought  to  bear  on  their  production.  The  minor  manu- 
facturers usually  contract  with  some  foundry  for  their  sup- 
ply of  plates,  but  in  most  cases  the  restrictions  as  to  weight 
and  finish  are  so  severe  that  even  ordinary  profits  are  never 
looked  for  by  the  founder.  Leading  firms  have  them  made 
in  their  own  foundries,  where  special  mixtures  of  iron, 
which  have  been  previously  determined  and  tested,  are 
melted  down  at  once,  and  poured  into  as  many  as  seventy 
moulds  simultaneously,  in  order  that  all  may  be  alike.  The 
chief  feature  in  moulding  these  castings  is  the  ramming. 
See  HAMMING. 

Picker. — There  are  various  devices  for  picking  out 
small  patterns  from  the  sand,  including  screws,  spikes  and 
spring-lifters,  etc..  all  of  which  are  designated  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  picker  The  best  picker  for  very  small  bench- 
work  patterns  that  are  made  of  wood  and  do  not  require 
duplicating  is  a  fine-pointed  steel  wire.  But  if  a  large 
number  require  to  be  made  from  one  pattern,  have  a  small 
hole  bored  well  in,  or  through  if  the  pattern  is  thin,  and 
use  the  spring-lifter.  A  metal  plate  inserted  neatly  at  the 
orifice  of  the  hole  will  prolong  the  usefulness  of  the  pattern 
indefinitely.  See  SCREW  ;  SPIKE;  SPRING-LIFTER. 


Pick  hammer.  304  Pig-iron. 

Pick-hammer. — A  steel  hammer  with  tempered 
points,  for  use  in  discovering  scoria  and  other  dirt  which 
may  be  lodged  under  the  thin  skin  of  castings. 

Pickle. — A  pickle  for  removing  sand  from  castings  by 
sprinkling  is  made  from  sulphuric  acid  1  and  water  4. 
The  castings  are  sprinkled  and  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
when  this  is  used;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  make  a  bath  in 
which  to  submerge  the  castings,  then  10  of  water  may  be 
added  to  1  of  the  acid. 

For  cleansing  brass  castings  the  pickle  should  be  made 
from  nitric  acid  1  and  water  3. 

The  vessel  in  which  the  sulphuric-acid  pickle  is  to  remain 
should  be  lined  with  sheet  lead ;  that  for  the  nitric-acid  bath 
should  be  of  earthenware  or  glass. 

Cast-iron  work  should  receive  considerable  attention  after 
pickling,  if  it  is  intended  to  plate  or  japan  them.  The 
gray  accumulation  seen  on  the  surface  after  this  process 
will,  if  left  thereon,  be  sure  to  fall  off  in  time,  bringing 
with  it  whatever  has  been  subsequently  applied.  Simple 
water  is  not  sufficient  to  accomplish  a  thorough  cleansing 
from  this  objectionable  film;  the  castings  should  be  first 
steeped  in  a  strong  hot  potash  or  soda  bath,  after  which  hot 
water  or  steam  may  be  played  over  them  until  they  are 
thoroughly  clean,  when  after  being  heat-dried  they  are 
ready  for  the  plating,  japanning,  or  paint.  See  PLATING  ; 
DIPPING;  LACQUERING. 

Pig-iron. — Iron  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  bar,  so 
called  from  having  been  run  from  a  central  or  main 
channel  designated  the  sow,  which  connects  with  the  tap- 
hole  of  the  blast-furnace,  and  may  be  directed  to  any  part 
of  the  sand  floor  of  the  casting-house,  the  pigs  being 
branches  from  the  same.  According  to  the  fracture,  pig 


Pig-iron  Barrow.  305  Pig  iron  Tester. 

iron  is  classified  as  gray,  mottled,  and  loliite  iron.     See 
CAST-IRON;  GRADES  OF  PIG-IRON. 

Pig-iron  Barrow. — A  vehicle  for  hauling  pig  iron, 
usually  made  high  in  the  front  to  prevent  the  pigs  from 
slipping  forward  on  the  wheel,  and  with  a  flat  tray  for  ease 
in  loading  and  unloading.  Barrows  for  this  purpose  and 
for  the  transfer  of  heavy  castings  are  now  made  by  special- 
ists having  the  front,  and  tray  made  from  bent-iron  strips 
set  edgewise  and  securely  fastened  together,  which  presents 
a  platform  firm  and  almost  indestructible.  These  barrows 
can  be  furnished  by  the  dealers  with  either  one  or  two 
wheels  attached. 

Pig-iron  Breaker. — The  common  form  of  breaker 
for  pig-iron  is  a  heavy  sledge-hammer.  Many  forms  of 
power  breakers  are  employed  at  the  blast-furnaces  which 
might  with  considerable  profit  be  introduced  in  the  foun- 
dries, where  a  large  quantity  of  pig  iron  must  be  broken 
for  convenience  in  charging  the  cupola. 

Pig-iron  Scales. — The  best  form  of  scale,  where 
large  quantities  of  different  brands  of  pig  iron  must  be 
handled  proportionately,  is  one  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
weigh  a  whole  charge  at  once.  This  scale  would  require  a 
section  of  railway  corresponding  to  the  system  throughout 
the  yard  and  to  the  furnaces;  the  pig-iron  truck  can  be  run 
on  the  scales,  and  the  several  quantities  constituting  a 
charge  could  be  placed  thereon,  and  be  at  once  conveyed  in 
bulk  up  an  inclined  plane  to  the  cupola  scaffold  or  on  the 
level  to  the  elevator  platform. 

Pig-iron  Tester  is  a  simple  form  of  machine  for 
ascertaining  the  transverse  strength  of  cast  iron,  some 
having  an  indicator  attached  by  which  the  elastic  limit  is 


Piling.  306  Pin  and  Cottar. 

measured  also.  This  is  an  excellent  contiivance  for  obtain- 
ing a  comparative  test  of  the  iron  supplied  subsequent  to 
charging  in  the  cupola  by  simply  melting  a  small  quantity 
in  the  crucible  and  casting  one  or  more  1-inch-square  bars, 
the  strength  of  which  may  be  discovered  by  the  machine. 
Density,  tendency  to  chill,  and  shrinkage  may  also  be 
observed  in  the  cast  bars,  and  thus  by  these  mechanical 
means  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  iron  may  be  obtained  before 
taking  risks  in  the  cupola.  See  TESTING-MACHINE. 

Piling. — Puddled  balls,  after  being  shingled,  are 
called  blooms,  which  after  passing  through  the  puddle-bar 
rolls  are  called  puddle-bar.  For  the  best  iron  these  bars 
are  cut  into  short  lengths  and  made  into  jM7es,tobe  reheated 
and  again  passed  through  the  forge-rolls,  after  which  the 
iron  is  again  cut,  piled,  and  heated,  and  then  passed  through 
the  mill-train,  the  finishing-rolls  being  the  last  rolls  in  the 
train.  For  beams,  rails,  etc.,  the  piling  is  arranged  to  suit 
the  form  required,  the  pile  consisting  of  different  grades 
of  iron,  according  to  the  desired  quality  of  the  finished 
product.  See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

Pin. — A  common  name  in  the  foundry  for  a  gate-pin, 
also  a  flask-pin.  See  GATE-PIN;  SNUG. 

Pill  and  Cotter. — An  arrangement  for  pinning 
flasks,  consisting  of  a  wrought  iron  or  steel  pin,  with 
forged  or  turned  shoulder,  to  rest  in  holes  provided  in  the 
drag,  to  which  it  is  made  fast  by  a  nut  which  is  screwed 
on  the  small  end  of  the  pin.  The  cotter-hole  is  forged  in 
the  pin,  so  that  when  the  cotter  is  driven  home  its  upper 
edge  touches  the  upper  part  of  the  hole,  while  the  lower 
one  rests  on  the  lug  or  flange  of  the  cope,  and  clear  of  the 
hole  entirely;  thus  by  this  means  drawing  cope  and  nowel 
close  together  and  holding  them.  See  SNUG. 


Pincers.  307  Pitch. 

Pincers. — An  instrument  for  grasping  objects,  draw- 
ing nails,  etc.  Two  handles  work  the  jaws,  which  are  held 
in  position  by  a  pivot. 

Pinch-bar. — A  long  bar  of  steel  or  iron,  fashioned  at 
the  end,  suitable  for  raising  weights  or  propelling  vehicles. 
See  LEVER. 

Pinchbeck. — An  imitation  gold,  composed  of  copper 
5,  zinc  2.  See  GOLD  ;  TOMBAC. 

Pipe-clay. — A  clay  of  a  grayish-white  color,  greasy 
to  the  touch,  very  plastic,  and  free  from  iron  and  other 
impurities.  Its  principal  use  is  for  making  white  pottery 
and  tobacco-pipes.  See  FELDSPAR;  KAOLIN;  POTTERY- 
MOULDING;  ETC. 

Pipe-moulding. — See  CAST-IRON  PIPES. 

Piston-blowers  are  machines  which  force  the  blast 
with  every  alternate  motion  of  the  piston.  See  BLOWER. 

Pit  is  a  general  foundry  term  for  all  holes  dug  in  the 
floor  in  which  to  form  moulds  in  green-sand,  or  close 
together  and  cast  such  as  are  formed  in  dry  sand  or  loam. 
In  the  former  instance  the  hole  is  dug,  the  pattern  inserted, 
and  the  sand  rammed  therein,  as  described  at  "Bedding 
In  "  (q.v.),  while  in  the  latter  it  may  be  required  only  to 
lower  the  mould  down  to  a  suitable  depth  for  casting  (see 
DRY-SAND  MOULDING)  ;  or,  as  in  the  case  of  a  loam-mould,  it 
may  be  necessary  both  for  closing,  and  binding  the  walls 
sufficient  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  molten  iron  within  by 
ramming  sand  firmly  in  the  space  betwixt  the  pit-sides  and 
the  mould.  See  LOAM-MOULDING;  CURB;  BAMMING. 

Pitch  is  the  black  residue  remaining  after  distilling 
wood-tar.  Charcoal  is  made  by  covering  piles  of  wood  to 


Pit-coal.  308  Plaster-cast. 

partially  exclude  the  air;  this  is  fired,  and  the  volatile  con- 
stituents of  the  wood  gradually  distil  off,  leaving  the  char- 
coal. If  it  is  desired  to  produce  tar,  the  resinous  woods 
are  employed,  and  the  pit-bottom  is  made  concave.  During 
combustion,  the  liquid  products  are  separated,  collect  at 
the  bottom,  and  flow  out  through  a  trough  into  a  reservoir. 
They  consist  of  tar,  acetic  acid,  and  oil  of  turpentine. 
When  the  tar  is  distilled,  essence  of  turpentine  is  separated, 
and  what  remains  is  pitch.  See  TAR. 

Pit-coal. — The  name  given  to  mineral  coal  to  distin- 
guish it  from  charcoal.  See  COAL. 

Plaster. — Sulphate  of  lime  or  plaster  of  Paris.  See 
GYPSUM. 

Plaster- cast. — To  take  a  plaster-cast  of  any  figure, 
bust,  medal,  etc.,  it  is  only  necessary  to  obtain  a  mould  by 
pressing  some  soft  substance  upon  it,  which  when  it  has 
hardened  maybe  filled  with  plaster;  the  latter  soon  hardens, 
and  a  representation  of  the  original  is  obtained.  The  sub- 
stances used  for  forming  such  moulds  are  various:  for  some 
objects  a  composition  of  beeswax,  rosin,  and  pitch  may  be 
poured  round  it ;  for  very  small  objects,  wax  alone,  or  the 
crumbs  of  new  bread,  will  answer  ;  but  for  larger  ones  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  moulds  of  the  plaster  itself,  or  clay 
may  be  substituted.  A  cast  of  a  person's  face  is  obtained 
by  first  securing  the  hair  at  the  back,  inserting  paper  tubes 
at  the  nostrils  for  breathing,  and  oiling  the  face,  the  person 
lying  on  his  back.  The  thin  plaster  is  then  carefully  spread 
one-fourth  inch  thick  all  over,  taken  away  when  set,  and 
used  for  obtaining  a  clay  model,  from  which  to  make  a 
plaster-mould,  which  serves  as  the  matrix  for  the  final 
cast,  and  which  must  be  divided  at  suitable  places  for  easy 
withdrawal  from  the  face.  See  STATUE-FOUNDING. 


Waster  Match-part.  309  Platen. 

Plaster  Patch-part. — A  joint  board  or  match-part 
prepared  in  plaster.  See  MATCH-PART. 

Plate. — Foundry  plates  are  of  two  kinds  principally, 
being  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  or  covering  moulds. 
Those  used  for  carrying  are  usually  plain  open-sand  plates, 
with  handles  or  lugs  made  in  a  form  suitable  for  the  lifting 
tackle  used;  whilst  the  covering  plates  have  dabbers  or 
prickers  cast  on  them  for  sustaining  the  loam  or  sand  with 
which  they  are  covered  on  the  mould  or  face  side.  See 
PRICKERS  ;  LOAM-MOULDING;  OPEN-SAND  MOULDING. 

Plate  Brass  is  cast  brass  for  rolling  into  sheets,  and 
is  composed  of  copper  16,  zinc  3.  See  BRASS. 

Plate-moulding  is  simply  dividing  the  pattern  to 
be  moulded  exactly  at  the  joint  or  parting,  and  placing  the 
halves  opposite  to  each  other  on  an  iron  plate  or  a  board, 
which  is  provided  with  pin-holes  exactly  corresponding  to 
the  interchangeable  flasks  to  be  used.  Cope  and  nowel 
may  then  be  rammed  respectively,  cope  lifted  off,  plate 
taken  away,  and  the  cope  again  pinned  to  place.  If  dis- 
tinct plates  are  made  for  each  side  the  operations  are 
facilitated  somewhat,  as  all  the  nowels  can  be  completed  at 
once  and  the  copes  follow  in  succession:  the  advantage  in 
the  latter  method  is,  that  the  plate  is  withdrawn  from  the 
mould  in  both  cases,  while  in  the  former  the  cope  is  lifted 
off  the  plate  a  bad  feature  when  the  patterns  are  not  com- 
paratively plain.  When  more  than  one  pattern  are  thus 
treated,  and  all  run  from  one  common  gate,  it  is  customary 
to  call  it  a  card  of  patterns.  See  MATCH-PLATE. 

Platen,  in  moulding-machines,  is  the  upper  diaphragm 
or  plate,  against  which  the  flask  with  its  containing  sand 
and  pattern  is  forced  by  pressure  from  below.  See  MOULD- 
ING-MACHINES. 


Mates  of  Metal.  310  Plating 

Plates  of  Metal. — For  weight  of  a  superficial  square 
foot  of  different  metals,  see  WEIGHT  OF  PLATES. 

Plate-wheel. — A  wheel  having  the  rim  and  hub  con- 
nected by  a  plate  instead  of  arms. 

Platform. — The  scaffold  round  the  cupola,  built  for 
convenience  in  charging.  If  possible,  they  should  always 
be  of  sufficient  area  to  accommodate  the  stowing  of  all  the 
iron,  fuel,  material  for  repairs,  etc.,  required  for  one  day's 
melting  at  least,  for  which  reason  there  should  be  no  mis- 
take made  as  to  the  strength  of  such  structures.  If  there 
be  a  system  of  tracks  in  the  yard,  an  incline  from  the 
platform  will  serve  to  communicate  therewith.  See  PIG- 
IKON  SCALES;  CHARGING- PLATFORM. 

Platform-cranes  are  walking  cranes  erected  on 
trucks  which  run  on  rails  or  road.  See  CRANES. 

Platform  Scale. — A  weighing-machine  provided 
with  a  platform  on  which  to  place  the  object  to  be 
weighed.  See  WEIGHING-SCALES. 

Plating. — The  coating  of  one  metal  with  another. 
This  is  done  in  some  cases  to  protect  the  underlying  metal 
from  oxidation;  in  others,  that  the  properties  of  two 
metals,  such  as  strength  and  lustre,  may  be  combined  in 
one  object;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  done  that 
some  inferior  metal  may  appear  like  a  superior  one. 
Originally,  silver-plate  was  made  by  wiring  thin  plates  of 
silver  to  ingots  of  German-silver  or  copper,  and  submitting 
to  a  soldering  temperature  in  a  plating-furnace  to  unite 
the  two  surfaces.  The  ingot  was  then  rolled  down  to  a 
sheet,  in  which  the  relative  thickness  of  the  two  metals 
was  maintained.  This  method  of  plating  has  now  become 
almost  extinct,  being  superseded  by  electro-plating  and 


Platinum.  Bll  Platinum. 

gilding,  wliich  covers  the  object  with  a  film  by  the  aid  of 
electricity.  To  coat  articles  with  silver,  a  bath  is  made 
of  cyanide  of  silver  1  part,  to  2  or  3  parts  of  cyanide  of 
potassium,  dissolved  in  150  parts  of  water.  The  article 
to  be  plated  is  made  the  negative  pole,  and  a  piece  of 
silver  hung  in  the  bath  forms  the  positive  pole.  Articles 
are  gilded  by  employing  a  solution  of  the  double  cyanide 
of  gold  and  potassium,  and  suspending  plates  of  gold  in 
the  solution.  A  proper  coating  takes  from  three  to  six 
hours,  but  any  thickness  may  be  given  by  continuing  the 
operation.  From  \  to  1  ounce  of  silver  suffices  for  one 
square  foot  of  plating.  Other  metals  besides  copper,  silver, 
and  gold  can  be  electrically  deposited  from  their  solutions, 
as,  for  instance,  the  coating  of  iron  with  zinc,  a  solution  of 
the  sulphate  of  zinc  being  employed  for  that  purpose. 
The  deposition  of  nickel  from  the  sulphate  of  nickel  and 
ammonium  is  deposited  as  a  very  thin  but  extremely  hard 
coating  by  this  process,  so  that  innumerable  articles  may 
be  protected  from  tarnishing  and  corrosion,  as  nickel  will 
not  readily  tarnish,  even  in  a  very  moist  atmosphere.  See 
ELECTRO-PLATING;  NICKEL-PLATING;  GILDING. 

Platinum  is  a  rare  metal,  invariably  found  native, 
and  usually  associated  with  palladium,  iridiurn,  and  rho- 
dium. It  occurs  also  alloyed  with  gold,  copper,  iron,  and 
lead.  Found  chiefly  in  the  mines  of  the  Ural  Mountains, 
Brazil,  and  Mexico.  Its  color  is  grayish  white,  almost 
like  silver  in  appearance.  It  is  ductile,  takes  a  good 
polish,  and  is  as  malleable  as  gold  or  silver.  Its  most 
useful  qualities,  however,  are  the  difficulty  of  fusion  and 
its  absolute  resistance  to  the  action  of  almost  all  acids; 
but  it  may  be  slowly  dissolved  by  aqua  regia.  It  will  not 
oxidize  in  air  at  any  temperature.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
21.5.  Platinum  with  steel  forms  an  alloy  that  is  exceed- 
ingly hard.  See  METALS,  AQUA  REGIA  ;  PLATINUM  ALLOYS. 


Platinum  Alloys.  312  Plumber's  Solder. 

Platinum  Alloys.— These  alloys  are  almost  non- 
oxidizable,  and  may  be  prepared  by  the  usual  methods  of 
melting,  without  flux.  Nickel  100,  tin  10,  platinum  1 — 
suitable  for  table-ware.  Nickel  100,  tin  20,  platinum  1, 
silver  2 — a  good  mixture  for  bells.  Nickel  100,  tin  20, 
platinum  20 — optical  and  similar  instruments.  Another 
non-oxidizable  alloy  of  platinum  is  composed  of  nickel  GO, 
brass  130,  platinum  70.  Platinum  alloys  readily  with 
steel,  and  produces  a  very  tough  and  fine-grained  product 
when  present  to  the  extent  of  1  per  cent.  See  SILVER; 
SILVER  ALLOYS;  SILVERING;  NICKEL. 

Platinum  Steel.— See  PLATINUM  ALLOYS. 

Pliers. — A  kind  of  pincers  with  which  to  seize,  bend, 
break,  or  cut  small  objects. 

Plinth. — The  square  member  at  the  bottom  of  the  base 
of  a  column.  Also,  the  projecting  band  forming  the  base  of 
a  wall,  etc.  See  COLUMN". 

Plug. — A  conical  clay  bott,  or  bod,  secured  to  the  end 
of  the  bott-stick,  with  which  to  plug  the  tap-hole  of  the 
cupola.  See  BOTT-STICK. 

Plumbago.— See  BLACK  LEAD;  GRAPHITE;  FACING. 

Plumb-bob. — Usually  a  conically  shaped  piece  of  lead 
or  iron,  suspended  on  a  cord,  with  which  to  obtain  a  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon.  See  LEVEL. 

Plumber's  Solder. — Solder  for  lead  is  composed  of 
tin  1,  lead  1£ ;  flux  with  tallow  or  rosin.  For  tin :  tin  1, 
lead  2;  flux  with  rosin  and  sweet-oil.  A  useful  solder  for 
general  purposes  is  made  from  lead  5,  tin  3,  bismuth  1. 
See  SOLDERING  :  SOLDERS. 


Pneumatic  Cranes.  313  tolling. 

Pneumatic  Cranes. — Are  being  extensively  used 
because  of  their  convenience,  especially  for  moderate  duty. 
The  transmission  of  air  under  pressure  results  in  none 
of  the  annoyances  from  leakage  incident  to  steam  and 
hydraulic  piping,  and  obviates  all  trouble  in  disposing  of 
the  exhaust,  as  this  may  be  allowed  to  discharge  anywhere 
without  inconveniencing  any  one.  See  CBANES. 

Pneumatic  Lifts. — These  lifts  are  now  becoming 
common  among  blast-furnaces  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  as  compressed  air  is  readily  obtained  from  the 
blowing-engines  which  supply  the  furnaces.  A  wrought- 
iron  cylinder,  with  its  top  end  closed,  somewhat  longer  than 
the  distance  to  be  travelled  is  suspended  in  a  tank  by  counter- 
weights, after  the  manner  of  a  gasometer.  Air  at  three  or 
four  pounds  above  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  forced  into 
the  tank  through  a  pipe.  The  load  is  lifted  to  the  height 
required,  and  as  the  whole  of  the  working  parts  are  balanced, 
the  amount  of  power  required  is  only  what  will  be  sufficient 
to  elevate  the  load.  The  return  stroke  is  obtained  by  allow- 
ing the  air  to  escape  through  a  valve  into  the  atmosphere, 
the  empty  wagon  being  weight  sufficient  to  lower  the  bell 
in  the  tank.  The  motive  power  for  the  Gjers  pneumatic 
lift  is  obtained  from  a  pair  of  double-acting  air-pumps,  the 
lift  being  effected  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  acting 
against  a  vacuum  in  a  cylinder,  the  empty  wagon  being 
returned  by  the  compression  of  air  on  the  under  side  of  the 
piston.  See  ELEVATOK. 

Pocket. — The  temporary  extension  of  a  flask  in  one  or 
more  direction,  to  fit  it  for  use  on  some  special  casting  for 
which  it  had  not  been  originally  designed. 

Polling1. — The  operation  of  mixing  metal  by  vigorous 
stirring  with  a  rod  of  iron  or  pole  of  wood.  Wood-polling 


Polishing  Substances.  31 4  Porcelain  Moulding, 

is  more  effective  especially  when  the  wood  is  green,  as  it 
yields  its  juices  in  a  gaseous  form  which  causes  the  metal 
to  bubble  freely,  and  the  operation  is  accelerated  wonder- 
fully. See  COPPER. 

Polishing  Substances. — The  substances  used  by 
the  worker  in  gems  and  precious  stones  are  principally 
powdered  diamond,  sapphire,  and  ruby;  for  the  several 
operations  in  the  various  metals,  powdered  corundum, 
emery,  pumice-stone,  flint,  tripoli,  rottenstone,  chalk,  oxide 
of  tin,  oxide  of  iron,  etc.,  are  used  by  metal-workers. 
For  the  first  operations  in  glass-polishing,  silex  sand  and 
water  are  used  between  the  rubber  and  the  glass,  after  which 
different  grades  of  emery,  and  finally  the  putty  powders,  or 
oxide  of  tin.  See  throughout  the  work  for  a  description  of 
the  substances  mentioned. 

Porcelain  Moulding. — Not  many  branches  of  in- 
dustry are  of  higher  antiquity  than  that  of  the  potter,  as 
the  plasticity  of  natural  clays  and  their  hardening  when 
exposed  to  heat  are  properties  which  were  known  in  the 
earliest  ages.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  true 
porcelain  and  earthenware,  the  body  of  the  former  ware 
being  very  compact  and  translucent,  and  breaking  with  a 
conchoidal  fracture,  which  shows  there  has  been  partial 
fusion. 

The  glaze  which  is  applied  to  porcelain  to  produce  the 
smooth  surface  evidently  blends  with  the  substance  of  which 
the  body  is  composed.  This  cannot  be  said  of  earthenware, 
which,  when  it  is  broken,  shows  an  open  and  somewhat 
earthy  fracture,  and  the  glaze  can  be  readily  detached. 
The  clay  employed  in  porcelain-making  is  derived  from  de- 
composed feldspar,  no  other  kind  being  pure  enough ;  this  is 
white,  and  free  from  ferric  oxide.  To  diminish  the  con- 
traction which  this  substance  undergoes  in  the  fire,  finely 


Porosity.  315  Porosity. 

divided  silica  made  from  pulverized  flints  is  added,  together 
with  a  proper  proportion  of  feldspar  or  other  fusible  ma- 
terial, also  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  The  ware  is 
moulded  in  plaster-of-Paris  matrices,  or  formed  by  means 
of  a  vertical  spindle  and  table  (potters'-wheel),  and  is  par- 
tially dried  in  the  air,  still  more  by  heat,  and  then  con- 
verted into  what  is  termed  biscuit  by  exposure  to  a  higher 
temperature.  This  porous  biscuit  is  in  a  condition  favor- 
able for  receiving  its  glaze,  which  is  either  ground  feldspar, 
or  a  mixture  of  silica,  gypsum,  and  some  porcelain  clay 
diffused  through  water.  After  dipping  in  this  mixture  the 
water  sinks  into  the  ware,  leaving  an  evenly  spread  surface 
of  the  powder;  after  it  has  again  dried  it  is  fired  at  an  ex- 
ceedingly high  temperature. 

The  manufacture  of  porcelain  outside  of  China  is  of 
modern  origin,  but  the  Chinese  have  practised  the  art  from 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  their  work  being  in 
some  respects  unequalled.  The  materials  employed  by 
them  are  kaolin,  or  decomposed  feldspar;  petuntze,  or  quartz 
reduced  to  fine  powder;  and  the  ashes  of  fern,  which  con- 
tain potassic  carbonate.  See  POTTERY-MOULDING. 

Porosity.— Pores  are  small  interstices  between  the 
particles  of  matter  which  compose  bodies,  and  are  either 
empty  or  filled  with  some  insensible  medium.  Condensa- 
tion and  rarefaction  are  only  performed  by  opening  and 
closing  the  pores.  What  shape  the  atoms  of  different 
bodies  are,  we  have  no  means  of  determining.  Pores  are 
often  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  as  in  sponge  and  pumice- 
stone;  but  in  gold  and  granite  they  are  too  minute  to  be 
detected.  If  we  place  a  little  water  on  chalk  or  cloth  it 
disappears;  in  a  certain  sense  it  penetrates  them,  but  it  does 
not  enter  into  the  solid  particles;  it  only  passes  into  the 
vacant  places  or  pores.  A  piece  of  iron  is  made  smaller  by 
hammering.  This  proves  its  porosity.  Its  particles  could 


Portable  Furnaces.  316  Portable  Furnaces. 

not  be  brought  into  closer  contact  if  there  were  no  in- 
terstices between  them.  Mercury  passes  through  lead,  and 
water  may  be  forced  through  the  pores  of  gold.  So  that, 
though  matter  is  essentially  impenetrable,  it  is  also  uni- 
versally porous.  See  PARTICLE. 

Portable  Furnaces. — A  French  portable  brass 
furnace  consists  of  a  furnace  with  a  fixed  crucible,  and 
arranged  so  that  the  castings  may  be  poured  direct  from 
the  crucible  without  removing  it  from  the  furnace,  the  two 
moving  simultaneously  from  the  furnace  to  the  moulds,  and 
vice  versa.  The  metal  may  be  fused  by  the  use  of  fuel,  the 
ashes  of  which  can  be  cleaned  out  of  the  furnace  before 
casting,  or  the  latter  annoyance  may  be  obviated  by  con- 
necting with  a  regenerative  or  a  gas-blast  system.  That 
part  of  the  furnace  which  contains  the  fixed  crucible  is 
set  in  standards  provided  with  bearings  for  the  trunnions 
to  rest  in,  and  the  standards  being  secured  to  a  suitable 
truck,  the  whole  is  run  on  the  tracks  for  casting,  which 
operation  is  readily  performed  by  means  of  a  small  hoist 
attached  to  one  of  the  standards,  which  tilts  the  furnace 
sufficient  to  allow  the  metal  to  flow  from  the  crucible  at  its 
upper  edge.  See  GAS-BLAST  FURNACE;  BRASS  FURNACE. 

A  very  handy  and  serviceable  portable  cupola  for  melting 
cast  iron  or  other  metals  may  be  made  and  mounted  on 
wheels,  for  use  on  special  occasions,  such  as  mixing  for 
tests,  or  taking  off  a  very  light  heat  occasionally.  The 
shell  could  be  of  TV  plate,  and  large  enough  in  diameter  to 
measure  about  18  inches  diameter  when  lined  with  4-inch 
bricks.  Its  height  might  be  60  inches,  with  wind-box 
attached,  covering  3  tuyere  holes  2J  inches  diameter, 
pierced  about  16  inches  from  the  bottom  plate.  A  small 
fan-blower  set  back  of  the  cupola  could  be  arranged  for 
running  either  by  hand  or  power.  Made  in  this  manner, 
the  refuse  material  contained  in  the  cupola,  when  done 


Portable  Ovens.  317  Potash. 

melting,  would  have  to  be  drawn  out  at  the  front  or  spout; 
but  this  might  be  obviated  by  suspending  the  cupola  on 
central  trunnions,  and  by  this  means  eject  the  whole  con- 
tents at  the  mouth.  The  latter  method  is  a  great  help  in 
cleaning  and  repairing  so  small  a  cupola.  With  efficient 
blast  and  good  management  such  a  cupola  should  melt  1000 
pounds  per  hour.  See  CUPOLA. 

Portable  Ovens.— Brass  and  iron  moulders'  drying 
stoves,  or  portable  ovens,  are  supplied  by  the  dealers  at 
very  low  prices.  They  are  made  in  sections,  which  fit  into 
each  other,  and  are  excellent  contrivances  for  drying  small 
cores.  See  OVENS. 

Portland  Cement. — So  called  from  its  near  resem- 
blance to  Portland  stone  in  color.  It  not  only  possesses  the 
property  of  setting  more  quickly,  and  has  greater  power  of 
cohesion  than  the  natural  cements,  but  it  may  be  used  with 
a  superabundance  of  water  in  the  form  of  grout,  which 
they  cannot  be.  This  cement  is  made  from  Westmacott's 
patent  carbonate  in  combination  with  chalk,  gray,  and  all 
other  limes.  All  the  carbonic  acid  being  removed  from 
the  lime  in  its  burning,  75  per  cent  of  this  acid  is  restored 
by  its  mixture  with  the  prepared  patent  carbonate. 

Pot. — A  common  name  in  foundries  for  the  crucible. 
See  CRUCIBLE. 

Potash. — This  substance  exists  in  plants,  combined 
with  other  organic  acids.  The  plants  being  burned  de- 
stroys the  combination,  the  organic  acids  being  decomposed 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  the  liberated  potash 
unites  with  some  of  the  carbonic  acid  formed  by  the  com- 
bustion, thus  producing  carbonate  of  potash.  This  salt  is 
highly  alkaline,  is  used  to  prepare  caustic  potash,  and  for 


Potassium.  318  Pot- metal. 

the  manufacture  of  soap,  glass,  etc.  Wood-ashes  furnish 
from  20  to  50  per  cent  of  their  weight  of  carbonate  of 
potash,  being  obtained  from  them  by  leaching  and  boiling 
the  solution  to  dry  ness  in  iron  pots.  See  ALKALI;  ASHES. 

Potassium. — Potassium  was  discovered  by  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  in  1807,  together  with  sodium,  barium,  stron- 
tium, and  calcium.  Before  this  time  the  alkalies  and 
alkaline  earths  had  been  considered  as  simple  bodies,  and  it 
is  to  him  we  owe  the  discovery  of  their  compound  nature. 
He  obtained  it  in  very  small  quantity  by  exposing  a  piece 
of  moistened  potassic  hydrate  to  the  action  of  a  powerful 
voltaic  battery;  the  positive  pole  gave  off  oxygen,  and 
metallic  globules  of  pure  potassium  appeared  at  the  nega- 
tive pole.  Potassium  is  a  brilliant  white  metal  with  a  high 
degree  of  lustre;  at  the  common  temperature  of  the  air  it 
is  soft,  and  may  be  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  but  at  32°  F.  it  is 
brittle  and  crystalline.  It  melts  completely  at  130°  F.  and 
distils  at  a  low-red  heat.  It  floats  on  water,  its  specific 
gravity  being  only  0.865.  It  oxidizes  instantly  in  the  air; 
takes  fire  if  thrown  upon  water.  Potassium  decomposes 
nearly  all  compounds  containing  oxygen  if  brought  in 
contact  with  them  at  high  temperatures;  hence  to  preserve 
it  pure  it  is  kept  under  naphtha,  a  liquid  containing  no 
oxygen.  See  METALS;  ALLOYS. 

Potato-flux. — If  a  raw  potato  is  fastened  on  the  end 
of  a  bar  and  thrust  into  a  ladle  of  cast  iron  and  held  there, 
the  escaping  steam  will  cause  a  violent  ebullition,  which 
thoroughly  mixes  and  cleanses  the  mass.  The  dirt  rises  to 
the  surface,  and  may  be  removed  with  the  skimmer.  See 
POLLING. 

Pot-metal. — An  alloy  of  lead  and  copper,  and  called 
pot-metal  when  the  alloy  consists  of  these  two  metals  only, 


Pottery-moulding.  Pottery  moulding. 

exclusive  of  any  other.  The  object  in  making  pot- metal  is 
to  use  as  much  lead  as  possible,  and  thus  obtain  a  cheap 
compound  for  use  on  the  commonest  class  of  work,  such  as 
beer-taps,  etc.  A  mixture  of  copper  16,  lead  2  makes 
a  ductile  alloy  of  a  red  color.  When  the  mixture  consists 
of  copper  16,  lead  4,  its  redness  and  ductility  are  very  per- 
ceptibly decreased.  Copper  16  and  lead  6  is  the  real 
pot-metal,  and  is  commonly  termed  "dry  pot-metal,"  or 
cock  alloy.  Beyond  this  proportion  of  lead  there  is  danger 
of  the  lead  separating  from  the  alloy  as  it  cools;  but  by 
careful  manipulation  it  is  possible  to  make  a  compound  of 
copper  16  and  lead  8,  which  is  termed  "  wet  pot-metal." 
The  addition  of  a  small  proportion  of  tin  to  wet  pot-metal 
will  prevent  the  lead  from  separating,  as  tin  may  be  mixed 
in  almost  any  proportion  with  the  alloy;  and  if  the  mixture 
consist  of  copper  16,  lead  7,  antimony  1,  the  same  effect  is 
obtained;  but  it  is  no  longer  the  true  pot-metal  when  these 
additions  nave  been  made.  See  COPPER;  LEAD;  ANTI- 
MONY; TIN. 

Pottery-moulding". — Pottery  is  a  term  applied  to 
all  objects  made  in  clay  and  baked.  The  potter's  art  has 
been  practised  by  even  semi-barbarous  races  from  the 
remotest  period.  Vases  of  baked  earthenware  were  in  use 
at  the  earliest  period  of  Egyptian  civilization,  and  Babylon 
and  Assyria  were  noted  for  their  pottery,  which  was  of  a  red 
color  and  more  refined  shape  than  that  of  the  Egyptians. 
The  Greeks  claimed  the  invention  of  the  potter's-wheel. 
Etruscan  ware,  famous  for  the  bas-relief  ornaments 
moulded — evidently  from  metal  ores  on  its  surface,  was  in 
use  500  years  B.C.,  and  was  the  source  of  Roman  pottery. 
The  existence  of  unglazed  earthenware  in  North  America 
dates  from  remote  times.  This  ware  is  of  the  rudest  kind, 
and  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  earliest  specimens 
of  Northern  Europe.  Mexico  and  Peru  were  excellent 


Pottery-moulding.  320  Pottery-moulding. 

workers  in  pottery  in  the  earlier  ages,  to  which  the  mould- 
ing, coloring,  and  ornamentation  of  preserved  specimens 
bear  ample  evidence;  but  they  never  acquired  the  art  of 
glazing.  The  knowledge  of  glazes  was  first  acquired  by 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  and  descended  from  them 
to  the  Persians,  Moors,  and  Arabs,  the  latter  race  intro- 
ducing into  Spain  the  art  of  making  glazed  tile  about 
711  A.D.  The  first  appearance  of  Italian  enamelled  faience, 
the  precursor  of  modern  porcelain,  dates  about  1420, 
being  then  used  by  Lucca  della  Kobbia  for  subjects  in 
relief.  A  century  later  the  works  of  Raphael  were  copied 
on  plates  and  oEher  ware,  and  painted  in  brilliant  colors. 
Enamelled  ware  passed  into  France  in  1590  with  Catherine 
de  Medici.  The  celebrated  Palissy  discovered  at  Saintes, 
1555,  the  art  of  enamelling  a  gray  paste,  from  which  he 
moulded  fruit,  animals,  etc.,  for  decorating  dishes.  Glazed 
earthenware  delft  was  first  made  at  Delft  about  13GO; 
but  none  of  these  wares  was  equal  to  the  Chinese  porce- 
lain, which,  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  became  known  in  Italy  1330,  in  France 
1370,  and  later  in  England.  Wedgwood,  the  great 
English  potter,  was  born  at  Burslem  in  Staffordshire 
1730. 

Pottery  and  porcelain  differ  chiefly  in  this,  that  the 
superior  quality  of  the  materials  used  for  making  the 
latter  gives  it  the  peculiar  quality  of  transluceucy  it 
possesses.  (See  PORCELAIN.)  Inferior  materials  used  for 
making  pottery,  include  phosphate  of  lime,  bone-ashes, 
calcined  flint,  etc.,  which  are  added  to  the  native  clays. 
Besides  the  common  methods  of  moulding  by  the  wheel  and 
forming  with  the  hand,  improved  moulding  machinery  has 
been  introduced,  which  facilitates  operations  to  a  great 
extent.  Large  numbers  of  articles  are  made  in  plaster- 
moulds,  which  being  porous  rapidly  absorbs  the  moisture 
from  the  creamy  clay  with  which  they  are  filled;  a  stopper 


Pound.  321  Precious  Metals. 

at  the  bottom  of  the  mould  is  withdrawn  when  it  is  known 
that  a  sufficient  thickness  of  the  paste  has  adhered  to  the 
mould,  and  the  superfluous  paste  runs  out.  If  it  is  found 
that  the  article  thus  produced  is  not  thick  enough  the 
operation  is  repeated.  Another  method  of  obtaining  the 
desired  form  from  plaster-moulds  is  to  roll  the  clay  into 
thin  sheets  and  press  it  upon  the  surface  with  a  sponge. 
See  PORCELAIN. 

Pound. — The  pound  is  a  standard  weight,  and  consists 
of  16  ounces  avoirdupois,  or  12  ounces  Troy.  The  avoirdu- 
pois pound  weighs  7000  Troy  grains,  and  the  Troy  pound 
5760  grains. 

Pouring-basin.  —  A  reservoir  formed  in  sand  to 
receive  the  molten  metal  from  the  ladle,  from  whence 
it  passes  to  the  mould  by  whatever  system  of  running- 
gates  is  suitable.  See  BASIN;  GATES;  etc. 

Power-hammer  is  a  hammering  machine  operated 
by  steam,  air,  or  some  other  mechanical  contrivance.  See 
HAMMER. 

Prairie  Hay. — This  hay  is  now  obtained  in  large 
quantities  and  spun  into  ropes  suitable  for  wrapping  on  core- 
barrels.  Spools  of  'this  ready-made  rope  containing  from 
300  to  350  feet  may  be  purchased  from  any  of  the  dealers 
in  foundry  supplies  at  a  very  low  price.  See  HAY-ROPE  ; 
CORE-BARREL. 

Precious  Metals. — Gold  and  silver  are  denominated 
precious  metals  because  their  peculiar  properties  pre- 
eminently fit  them  for  becoming  standards  of  value.  Even 
barbarians  are  cognizant  of  their  superiority  over  all  other 
metals.  They  have  a  brilliant  lustre,  are  hard,  arid  of 


Precious  Stones.  322  Pressing  Fluid  Steel. 

high  specific  gravity,  not  subject  to  oxidization,  fusible, 
malleable — the  two  latter  properties  permitting  them  to 
be  cast  or  stamped  with  designs ;  and,  besides  all  these 
superior  qualities,  they  are  found  pure.  See  GOLD; 
SILVER. 

Precious  Stones. — The  hardness  of  precious  stones, 
beginning  with  the  hardest,  is  as  follows:  1.  Diamond; 
2.  Ruby;  3.  Sapphire;  4.  Topaz;  5.  Hyacinth;  6.  Emerald; 
7.  Garnet;  8.  Amethyst;  9.  Agate;  10.  Turquoise;  11.  Opal. 

Precipitation. — When  a  body  dissolved  in  a  fluid, 
either  through  the  action  of  the  air,  or  of  a  gas,  or  of  a 
chemical  agent  in  solution,  is  made  to  separate  and  fall 
down  in  the  concrete  state,  this  falling  down  is  called 
precipitation,  and  the  matter  thus  separated  is  called  a 
precipitate.  See  SOLUBILITY. 

Pressed  Fuel. — Many  loose  substances  which  other- 
wise would  be  wasted  are  mixed  with  cements  composed  of 
either  coal-tar,  cow-dung,  pitch,  clay,  or  other  combina- 
tions, to  bind  them  together,  after  which  they  are  subjected 
to  pressure,  and  solid  fuel  is  produced  from  the  mass  in  the 
form  of  bricks  or  balls.  Pulverized  coal  is  treated  in  this 
way. 

Pressing  Fluid  Steel. — The  invention  of  Sir 
Joseph  Whitworth  for  the  production  of  sound  steel  ingots 
consists  in  applying  pressure,  by  powerful  hydraulic  ma- 
chinery, while  the  metal  is  solidifying  in  the  ingot.  As 
from  6  to  20  tons  per  square  inch  is  the  amount  of 
pressure  required  to  produce  a  sound  ingot  in  this  manner, 
the  moulds  employed  are  of  special  construction.  The 
main  cylinder  is  strengthened  by  steel  bands  on  the  out- 
side, and  the  inside  or  iron  lining  is  composed  of  cast-iron 


Pressure-blower.  323  Pressure  moulding. 

lagging,  which  receives  a  coat  of  very  refractory  loam. 
This  system  of  lagging  permits  the  gases  to  escape  freely, 
as  they  are  forced  out  by  the  enormous  pressure  exerted. 
See  INGOT. 

Pressure-blower. — A  blowing-engine  that  gives  a 
positive  blast,  and  measures  and  forces  forward  at  each 
revolution  a  fixed  quantity  of  air,  whether  the  pressure  be 
high  or  low,  or  the  speed  fast  or  slow.  See  BLOWER. 

Pressure-forging. — Usually  a  substitution  of  hy- 
draulic or  other  machinery  for  the  regular  processes  of 
hammering  and  rolling  metals  into  the  required  form. 

Pressure-gauge. — A  pressure-gauge  for  showing  the 
amount  of  pressure  in  the  wind-box  and  pipes  of  the 
cupola  consists  of  a  glass  siphon  tube,  with  equal  legs,  half 
filled  with  mercury;  one  end  is  cemented  into  a  pipe  which 
enters  the  wind-box,  the  other  is  open  to  the  atmosphere. 
If  a  stop-cock  is  provided,  it  may  be  shut  off  at  pleasure. 
The  wind  acting  on  the  mercury  in  one  leg  of  the  gauge 
presses  it  down,  and  it  rises  correspondingly  in  the  other 
leg.  The  difference  between  the  two  columns  is  the  height 
of  mercury  which  corresponds  to  the  excess  of  the  pressure 
in  the  wind-box  above  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
If  eight  ounces  per  inch  be  allowed  for  the  length  of  this 
column,  the  effective  pressure  of  the  blast  in  ounces  per 
square  inch  is  obtained.  Therefore  all  that  is  necessary 
for  graduating  the  tube  is  to  mark  it  off  in  one-eighth-inch 
divisions,  and  each  division  would  represent  one  ounce  of 
pressure.  See  BLAST-GAUGE. 

Pressure-moulding. — The  several  moulding-ma- 
chines which  operate  by  forcing  the  sand  into  the  flask 
betwixt  the  table  and  platen  may  be  taken  as  examples  of. 
pressure-moulding,  effecting  by  machine  pressure  what 


Pressure  of  Blast.  324  Prickers  on  Plates. 

has  hitherto  been  accomplished  by  hand-ramming.      See 
MOULDING-MACHINES. 

Pressure  of  Blast, — See  BLAST-PRESSURE. 

Pressure  of  Molten  Metal. — The  conditions  of 
liquid  pressure  exist  in  moulds  exactly  the  same  as  in  any 
other  vessel  in  which  liquids  may  be  placed.  Solids  trans- 
mit pressure  only  in  the  line  in  which  it  is  exerted ;  liquids 
transmit  it  in  every  direction — as  may  be  noticed  when  in 
casting  the  poured  metal  escapes  at  every  riser,  at  equal 
velocities.  Molten  metal  influenced  by  gravity  alone 
presses  in  all  directions,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following: 
Let  a  covered  mould  be  filled  with  molten  metal,  and  main- 
tain a  pressure  by  a  raised  runner-basin ;  if  this  mould  be 
tapped  at  the  bottom  the  metal  will  rush  out, — this  proves 
a  downward  pressure;  if  it  be  tapped  on  the  side,  the  metal 
rushes  out,  showing  a  lateral  pressure;  and  if  it  be  tapped 
on  the  top,  the  metal  will  escape  also,  showing  an  upward 
pressure.  The  pressure  of  molten  metal  in  every  direction 
is  proportioned  to  the  depth;  hence  the  necessity  of  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  moulds  towards  their  bases,  and 
additional  precautions  being  taken  to  hold  down  the  cope 
when  large  areas  are  subjected  to  a  considerable  head- 
pressure.  See,, WEIGHTING  COPES;  HYDBAULICS;  HYDRO- 
STATIC BELLOWS. 

Pricker. — A  moulder's  tool  with  which  to  pierce  the 
sand  to  permit  the  escape  of  steam  and  gas.  See  VENT- 
WIRE;  VENTING. 

Prickers  on  Plates.— These  are  frequently  called 
dabbers  or  prods  by  moulders.  If  the  plate  to  be  used  for 
covering  a  loam-mould  is  only  to  form  a  plain  surface,  the 
prickers  need  only  be  long  enough  to  carry  as  much  sand 
as  will  prevent  the  heat  from  damaging  the  plate  when  the 


Prince  Rupert's  Gold.  325  Printing. 

mould  is  cast.  In  the  event  of  projections  of  loam  or  sand 
having  to  be  sustained  safely,  the  prickers  are  made  long 
enough  to  reach  such  projections.  Tlie  method  of  forming 
prickers  is  by  thrusting  a  pricker-pattern  into  the  sand  to 
the  required  depth,  after  the  outer  edges  of  the  plate  have 
been  formed,  the  bed  having  been  previously  prepared  to 
the  required  density  to  receive  it.  See  LOAM-MOULDING  ; 
PLATE;  COVERING-PLATE. 

Prince  Rupert's  Gold.  —  A  kind  of  pinchbeck; 
copper  3,  zinc  1.  See  GOLD;  TOMBAC. 

Prince's-metal. — An  alloy  for  cheap  jewelry;  cop- 
per 18,  zinc  7.  See  GOLD;  TOMBAC. 

Print.  —  A  boss  or  hub  on  a  pattern  indicating  the 
place  for  a  core  of  that  shape  and  dimension.  See  CORE- 
PRINT. 

Printing. — Printing  mould  surfaces  is  a  process  re- 
quiring more  than  ordinary  judgment  and  dexterity  on  the 
part  of  the  moulder  to  do  it  well.  It  is  usually  practised 
in  foundries  that  make  a  specialty  of  fine  register  and 
stove-plate  work,  where  the  patterns  are  very  thin,  with 
more  or  less  decorative  work  on  their  front  surfaces.  Any 
attempt  to  fasten  the  blacking  on  these  surfaces  success- 
fully with  the  brush  or  tools  is  next  to  impossible,  and  it  is 
certain  that  returning  the  pattern  for  that  purpose  is  not 
only  productive  of  better  work,  but  more  expeditious  also. 
A  heavy  lead  or  charcoal  that  adheres  well  to  the  sand  is 
first  dusted  over  the  surface  and  the  dust  allowed  to  sub- 
side. In  the  mean  time  the  moulder  has  brushed  his  pat- 
tern, and  perhaps  warmed  it  a  little  ;  a  dusting  of  lighter 
blacking  is  applied,  and  the  pattern  returned,  rapped  down, 
and  withdrawn,  leaving  a  thin  coat  of  carbon  evenly  dis- 


Prods.  326  fuddled  Steel. 

tributed  on  every  part,  and  having  no  other  blemishes  than 
are  contained  in  the  pattern.     See 


Prods.  —  A  common  name  in  some  parts  for  the  prick- 
ers on  a  loam-plate.  See  PRICKERS. 

Projectiles  are  such  bodies  as,  being  put  in  a  violent 
motion  by  any  great  force,  are  then  cast  off  or  let  go  from 
the  place  where  they  received  their  quantity  of  motion;  as 
a  shell  or  shot  from  a  gun.  There  are  various  descriptions 
of  projectiles,  spherical  and  elongated,  some  being  solid, 
others  hollow  ;  also  case-shot,  etc.  See  SHOT  ;  SHELL  ; 
ORDNANCE. 

Propeller.  —  An  instrument  placed  at  the  back  part 
of  a  steam-vessel  for  the  purpose  of  propelling  her  through 
the  water.  See  SCREW-PROPELLER. 

Puddled  Steel,  or  Semi-steel,  is  produced  by  the 
decarburization  of  cast  iron  in  the  puddling  -furnace. 
Krupp,  of  Germany,  makes  the  bulk  of  his  steel  by  this 
process,  using  irons  rich  in  manganese  and  carbon,  which 
are  suited  for  conversion  into  steel.  The  puddling  process 
for  steel  is  very  like  that  for  malleable  iron,  except  that 
the  former  is  conducted  at  a  lower  temperature  and  needs 
more  careful  manipulation.  There  is  no  previous  refine- 
ment of  the  iron  to  be  operated  upon  when  steel  is  pro- 
duced by  puddling.  About  400  pounds  are  first  melted, 
mixed  with  silicate  of  iron  (slag),  and  kept  stirred  with  a 
rabble.  During  this  operation  the  carbon  contained  in  the 
iron  is  oxidized  by  the  oxygen  present  in  the  cinder,  pro- 
ducing carbonic  oxide,  which  as  it  escapes  causes  the  ap- 
pearance of  boiling.  When  this  boiling  is  general  through 
the  mass,  the  temperature  is  increased  until  the  appearance 
of  incipient  solidification  occurs;  the  temperature  is  then 


Puddle  rolls.  32?  Pumice-stone. 

reduced,  and  the  ordinary  process  of  balling  proceeded 
with.  The  work  in  this  case  demands  more  than  or- 
dinary skill.  This  steel,  after  being  made  into  bars,  is  cut 
up  and  remelted  in  crucibles,  in  order  to  produce  cast  steel. 
See  MALLEABLE  IRON;  CRUCIBLE  STEEL. 

Puddle-rolls  are  the  pair  of  rolls  on  the  left  of  the 
train,  usually  called  the  roughing -rolls.  See  MALLEABLE 
IRON;  ROLLS;  TRAIN. 

Puddling.— See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

Puddling- furnace. — A  furnace  for  separating  the 
carbon  and  other  impurities  from,  cast  iron.  This  furnace 
is  usually  of  the  reverberatory  kind,  and  in  the  process  the 
fire  is  not  mingled  with  the  metal,  as  in  the  case  of  smelt- 
ing, the  material  being  melted  by  causing  the  flame  to  im- 
pinge upon  it  on  its  way  from  the  fireplace  at  one  end  to 
the  chimney  at  the  other.  See  MALLEABLE  IRON  ;  REVER- 
BERATORY FURNACE.  • 

Pug-mill. — A  mill  used  by  potters  and  brickmakers 
to  cut  up  and  blend  the  clay.  Pug-mills  are  of  various 
designs,  and  some  of  them  are  capable  of  performing  several 
operations  successively,  as  cutting  the  clay,  grinding  and 
tempering  it,  and  finally  ejecting  a  limited  quantity  into 
the  moulds  below. 

Pulverized  Coal. — See  PRESSED  FUEL. 
Pulverizer.— See  SAND-PULVERIZER;  ROCK-CRUSHER. 

Pumice  •  stone. — A  spongy  lava  of  a  very  porous 
nature,  and  so  light  that  it  will  float  on  water.  It  is  found 
in  volcanic  districts,  being  composed  chiefly  of  silica  and 


Pure  Iron.  328  Quarter-turn  Pipe. 

alumina,  with  some  potash  and  soda.    See  POLISHING  SUB- 
STANCES. 

Pure  Iron  is  of  very  rare  occurrence,  and  can  be  ob- 
tained only  by  purely  chemical  methods  in  the  laboratory. 
See  NATIVE  IRON. 

Pvitty  is  whiting  and  linseed-oil  kneaded  into  a  thick 
paste.  See  WHITING. 

Putty-powder.— The  peroxide  of  tin,  made  by  skim- 
ming the  oxidized  surface  from  melting  tin,  which  when 
cold  is  reduced  to  a  fine  white  powder.  The  particles  be- 
ing very  hard,  it  is  used  as  a  polishing  material,  and  also  as 
a  coloring  for  enamels  and  glass.  See  POLISHING  SUB- 
STANCES. 

Pyrites. — A  native  compound  of  metal  with  sulphur. 
See  SULPHUR. 

Pyrometer. — An  instrument  for  measuring  tempera- 
tures beyond  the  ability  of  mercury  to  indicate.  The  older 
instruments  of  this  class,  such  as  the  Wedgwood,  Daniell's, 
etc.,  have  been  superseded  by  others  based  on  the  expansion 
of  gases  or  on  the  electrical  properties  of  bodies. 


Q. 

Quadrant  is  the  fourth  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle;  an  arc  of  90  degrees. 

Quart.— The  fourth  part  of  a  gallon.    Two  pints  make 
one  quart. 

Quarter-turn  Pipe.— A  curved  section  of  piping, 
the  ends  of  which  finish  at  an  angle  of  90°. 


Quartz.  329  Quicklime. 

Quartz. — The  purest  condition  of  silicon  is  that  of 
quartz,  in  which  it  forms  hexagonal  crystals  terminated  by 
six-sided  summits.  It  is  a  very  abundant  and.  widely  dif- 
fused mineral.  Quartz  rock  is  mainly  composed  of  it,  and 
it  is  in  this  substance  that  gold  is  more  frequently  found 
than  in  any  other.  Quartz  is  the  principal  constituent 
of  nearly  all  granites,  as  well  as  the  numerous  sand- 
stones, limestones,  trap-rocks,  etc.  Sands  of  both  desert 
and  sea-shore,  and  the  common  flint,  are  chiefly  composed  of 
it ;  and  many  stones,  as  the  agate,  amethyst,  carnelian, 
chalcedony,  jasper,  rock-crystal,  etc.,  are  simply  varieties 
of  quartz.  It  is  thought  that  a  great  deal  of  the  silica 
which  exists  in  nature  has  been  originally  deposited  in  the 
soluble  condition.  The  structure  of  the  chalcedony,  etc., 
proves  that  they  were  formed  by  a  solution  of  silica  having 
penetrated  into  a  cavity  in  the  surrounding  rock  and  there 
crystallized.  See  throughout  this  work  for  a  description 
of  the  substances  mentioned. 

Quartzite. — A  sedimentary  sandstone  which  by  meta- 
morphic  action  has  been  converted  into  a  hard  rock  possess- 
ing a  highly  refractory  nature,  for  which  reason  it  was 
formerly  employed  for  constructing  blast-furnace  hearths, 
etc.  See  SAND-STONE. 

Queen's  Metal. — For  teapots,  spoons,  etc.  Tin  100, 
bismuth  1,  antimony  8,  copper  4;  or,  tin  9,  bismuth  1,  an- 
timony 1,  lead  1.  See  WHITE  METALS;  BRITANNIA  METAL; 
TOMBAC;  GERMAN-SILVER. 

Quick-dipping  Acid. —  Sulphuric  acid  1  gallon, 
nitric  acid,  1  gallon.  This  is  for  brass  which  has  been  or- 
molued.  See  DIPPING. 

Quicklime. — Limestone   or    carbonate   of  lime  de- 


Quicksilver.  330  Ramming 

prived  of  its  carbonic  acid.     Unslaked  lime.     See  LIME; 
LIMESTONE,  etc. 

Quicksilver. — A  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  the 
metal  mercury.     See  MERCURY. 


K. 

Racks  for  Cores. — Brackets  projecting  from  the 
walls  of  the  foundry  oven  on  which  to  place  the  cores  dur- 
ing the  process  of  drying.  There  is  nothing  more  detri- 
mental to  the  business  of  core-drying  than  a  scarcity  of 
suitably  arranged  racks  along  the  walls  of  the  oven;  the 
carriage  may  also  be  utilized  for  this  purpose  in  some  in- 
stances. When  this  is  practicable,  large  numbers  of  cores 
may  be  conveniently  dried  simultaneously  with  the  moulds, 
etc.,  with  which  it  may  be  loaded.  See  OVEN;  CARRIAGE. 

Radius. — The  radius  of  a  circle  is  just  half  its  diam- 
eter; in  other  words,  it  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the 
centre  to  the  circumference.  See  CIRCLE. 

Ramming. — The  process  of  ramming  moulds  is  by 
no  means  a  simple  operation.  Inelegant  and  laborious  as 
it  may  seem,  it  is  at  the  ramming  stage  of  the  moulder's 
art  that  the  foundation  is  laid  for  the  successful  achieve- 
ment of  the  task  he  undertakes;  and  nothing  but  sound 
judgment  based  upon  intelligent  practice  is  able  to  qualify 
the  moulder  in  this  particular  department  of  his  trade. 
See  BUTT-RAMMER;  PEEN-RAMMER. 

Much  subsequent  repairing  and  finishing  of  the  mould 
may  be  avoided  when  strict  attention  is  paid  to  the  neces- 
sity of  ramming  each  portion  of  the  mould  in  exact  accord- 
ance with  absolute  requirements.  For  light  castings  of  a 
duplicate  character  it  is  essential  that  the  ramming  be  sys- 


Ramming.  331  Hamming. 

tematized  in  order  that  each  casting  shall  be  a  true  copy 
of  its  fellow  in  all  respects,  but  particularly  so  in  reference 
to  weight,  where  due  regard  must  be  had  to  their  being  as 
light  as  possible.  This  of  course  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  discovering  the  point  where  the  hardness  of  the  mould 
surface  interferes  with  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  the  molten 
metal  over  it.  Nearly  all  classes  of  light  work  may  be  suc- 
cessfully moulded  without  subsequent  venting  if  due  at- 
tention be  given  to  the  grading  and  tempering  of  the  sand 
used,  and  ramming  no  harder  than  is  absolutely  necessary; 
careful  tramping  with  the  feet  being  all  that  is  requisite  in 
countless  instances.  The  ignorant  moulder  pounds  away, 
regardless  of  the  diiferences  consequent  on  whatever 
changes  may  be  made  in  the  material  he  works  with.  Not 
so  the  intelligent  one :  he  is  closely  observant  of  all  these 
things,  and  regulates  his  ramming  accordingly. 

The  admirable  precision  and  duplication  of  similar 
castings  produced  on  the  moulding-machines  furnish  ample 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  aforesaid,  as  the  whole  process 
of  moulding  by  this  method  consists  in  placing  a  measured 
quantity  of  sand  in  the  flask  every  time  to  be  operated 
upon  by  the  rammer,  which  with  mechanical  precision 
presses  it  down  into  the  flask  and  around  the  pattern 
with  an  exactness  impossible  of  attainment  by  hand- 
ramming.  It  is  very  evident  that  whatever  superiority 
machine-made  castings  possess  over  those  made  by  hand- 
ramming,  it  must  all  inevitably  result  from  the  more  effi- 
cient and  exact  ramming  performed  by  the  machine,  as 
the  entire  operation  consists  of  introducing  an  exact 
quantity  of  sand  into  the  flask,  bringing  on  the  pressure, 
and  withdrawing  the  pattern, — all  of  which  operations  are, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  performed  automatically.  Subse- 
quent treatment  of  these  moulds  is  limited  to  the  placing 
of  cores  and  closing  the  parts  for  casting,  no  hand-finishing 
whatever  being  required.  See  MOULDING-MACHINES. 


Ramming.  332  Ramming. 

The  ramming  of  heavy  green-sand  work  undoubtedly 
calls  for  very  superior  ability,  as  not  only  must  the  mould 
face  be  made  of  the  proper  nature  and  density  to  resist  the 
intense  heat  of  the  metal,  but  every  suitable  means  must 
be  employed  to  resist  the  constant  pressure  exerted  whilst 
it  remains  in  a  fluid  state.  How  to  meet  all  these  con- 
ditions and  maintain  a  mould  surface  that  shall  be  free 
from  errors  likely  to  produce  faults  in  the  resultant  casting 
taxes  the  moulder  severely  when  the  material  is  not  in  all 
respects  what  it  should  be,  and  many  are  the  contrivances 
invented  to  counteract  or  neutralize  evils  that  are  known 
to  exist,  as  well  as  to  provide  against  possible  contingen- 
cies. 

The  nature  and  quality  of  sands  changing  with  each 
locality  renders  it  almost  impossible  to  formulate  absolute 
rules  for  ramming  which  shall  be  equally  applicable  at  all 
places;  it  remains,  therefore,  with  the  intelligent  moulder 
to  observe  well  the  kinds  of  sand  he  must  work  with,  and 
regulate  his  ramming  accordingly,  remembering  that  with 
the  finer  grades  there  is  always  a  possibility  of  ramming 
the  mass  to  a  consistency  that  will  effectually  prevent  the 
escape  of  gases  which  form  throughout  the  mould's  sur- 
face when  the  metal  enters  therein ;  especially  is  this  to  be 
observed  when  the  sand  is  of  a  clayey  nature.  See  GHEEN- 
SAND  MOULDING;  FACING-SAND;  etc. 

Ramming  dry-sand  moulds  is  not  by  any  means  as  im- 
portant as  green  sand,  it  only  being  required  in  this  case 
to  pack  the  sand  firmly  and  evenly  to  the  mould  face,  and 
of  sufficient  density  elsewhere  to  permit  of  free  handling 
and  resist  pressure  from  within.  If  the  facing-sand  be 
comparatively  free  from  gas-producing  substances,  and  the 
moulds  are  thoroughly  dried,  there  is  no  necessity  what- 
ever for  venting  ordinary  dry-sand  moulds,  there  being  no 
steam  to  lead  away,  as  in  the  case  of  green-sand  moulds. 
For  this  reason  unskilled  labor  may,  with  some  direction, 


Kam's-horn.  333  Eapping-plate. 

be  employed  for  ramming  very  many  of  the  moulds  made 
in  dry-sand.  See  DRY-SAND  MOULDING;  DRY-SAND 
FACING;  etc. 

Pit  ramming  is  simply  the  process  of  packing  the  space 
between  the  mould  and  the  pit  wall  with  sand  to  prevent 
the  pressure  exerted  within  the  mould  from  forcing  out 
the  walls;  in  other  words,  the  pit  is  made  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  confining  the  whole  mould,  just  as  a  flask 
does.  A  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  pressure  in  moulds  is 
very  helpful  to  the  moulder  in  this  instance,  because, 
knowing  that  pressure  is  greatest  at  the  bottom  it  is  at 
that  point  where  the  hardest  ramming  must  occur,  and 
every  course  of  ramming  may  be  made  proportionately 
less  dense  as  the  top  is  reached,  and  consequently  much 
valuable  time  saved  in  the  operation.  See  TRAMPING; 
PIT;  VENTING;  BUTT-RAMMER;  PEGGING-RAMMER. 

Kam's-horn. — A  hook  used  for  passing  loads  from 
one  crane  to  another.  See  DOUBLE-HOOK. 

Rappiiig-bar.— A  pointed  bar  of  iron  with  which  to 
jar  the  pattern  in  order  to  make  it  leave  the  sand  more 
readily.  See  LOOSENING-BAR. 

Rappiiig-plate. — An  iron  plate  inserted  in  a  pat- 
tern at  such  places  as  it  may  be  desired  to  effect  a  jarring 
or  loosening  of  the  same.  Ordinarily  these  plates  are  sunk 
down  even  with  the  surface,  and  fastened  with  common 
wood  screws.  For  light  patterns  easy  to  loosen  these 
answer  well  enough;  but  in  larger  ones  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  make  the  plates  strong,  with  more  surface,  and 
secure  them  by  bolts  to  a  similar  one  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  pattern.  By  this  means  the  nuts  will  always  bring 
both  plates  close  to  the  pattern,  and  thus  obvinte  the 
unpleasantness  which  is  sure  to  follow  if  the  common 


Rasp.  334  Ratio  of  Fuel  to  Iron 

screw-plates  are  used.  Another  advantage  the  bolted 
plates  offer  is  that  the  upper  plate  may  have  a  threaded 
hole  in  which  to  insert  an  iron  screw  for  drawing  out  the 
pattern.  These  are  often  called  screw-plates.  They  are 
much  better  than  driving  spikes  into  the  pattern.  See 

LOOSENING-BAR. 

Rasp. — The  rasp  differs  from  the  file  in  that  the  teeth 
protrude  separately,  thus  making  a  surface  much  more 
suitable  for  filing  cores  than  does  the  chisel-cut  teeth  of 
an  ordinary  file. 

Ratio  of  Fuel  to  Iron. — Ratio  of  fuel  to  iron 
means  the  proportion  of  fuel  burned  to  melt  a  given 
quantity  of  iron,  as  1  to  5,  or  1  to  12, — indicating  that  five 
pounds  of  iron  is  melted  with  an  expenditure  of  one  pound 
of  fuel  in  the  first  instance,  the  latter  indicating  that 
twelve  pounds  is  the  quantity  of  iron  melted  with  the  same 
amount  of  fuel.  Any  attempt  to  formulate  absolute  rules 
to  be  observed  by  the  cupola-man  at  all  foundries  alike 
must  assuredly  result  in  extreme  disappointment,  as  nearly 
every  place  has  its  own  special  needs  and  requirements, 
which  can  be  successfully  met  only  by  intelligent  obser- 
vation and  persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  the  cupola-man 
or  his  superiors.  For  this  reason  comparisons  relating  to 
the  economics  of  melting  iron  at  different  foundries  are  of 
no  real  value,  disappointment  and  loss  being  sure  to  attend 
any  attempt  to  appropriate  the  systems  of  others,  which 
may  in  all  probability  have  been  founded  on  experiences 
diametrically  opposite  to  our  own. 

Any  conceit  we  may  have  indulged  in  because  of  our 
ability  to  melt  iron  at  the  ratio  of  1  to  10  for  the  line  of 
castings  we  produce  must  be  forever  dissipated  when  we 
discover  that  the  exceedingly  low  temperature  of  such 
iron  would  render  it  utterly  valueless  for  the  light  castings 


Ratio  of  Fuel  to  Iron.  335  Eatio  of  Fuel  to  Iron. 

produced  by  our  neighbor,  who  for  this  reason  must 
necessarily  use  more  fuel  to  meet  his  case  successfully. 
The  foundry  melting  a  standard  gray  pig  with  first-class 
scrap  should  undoubtedly  melt  its  iron  down  with  greater 
regularity  and  with  much  less  fuel  than  where  perhaps 
unwieldy  and  promiscuous  scrap  with  a  slight  admixture 
of  pig  is  the  iron  charged. 

Quality  of  fuel  affects  results  perhaps  more  than  any- 
thing else;  if  poor,  a  greater  amount  must  be  used  to  obtain 
the  requisite  quantity  of  carbon.  This,  of  course,  increases 
the  bulk  between  charges  and  requires  extra  time  for  its 
consumption;  while  the  superfluous,  impure  substances,  as 
slate,  etc.,  yield  a  viscous  slag,  which  interferes  in  no  small 
degree  with  the  regular  process  of  melting,  retarding  it 
always.  Even  when  all  other  things  are  favorable,  the 
pressure  of  blast  and  care  bestowed  on  apparatus  will  al- 
ways exert  an  influence  for  better  or  worse  proportionate 
to  the  amount  of  intelligence  brought  to  bear  upon  such 
important  details.  Leaky  pipes  and  fitful  and  uncertain 
blast  mean  extra  fuel  and  delay  in  melting  operations. 

Construction  of  the  cupola  and  its  location,  with  refer- 
ence to  adverse  wind  currents  and  draught,  is  sufficient  in 
some  instances  to  mar  effectually  the  best  efforts  of  the 
cupola-man,  interfering,  as  it  does,  with  the  first  efforts  to 
ignite  the  -fire,  and  thus  precluding  all  possibility  of  an 
evenly-burned  stock — a  forerunner  sometimes  of  endless 
subsequent  vexations  and  delays.  The  unfairness  of  com- 
paring the  performance  of  cupolas  laboring  under  these 
and  kindred  disadvantages  with  others  of  faultless  con- 
struction and  suitable  location  will  be  apparent. 

The  wastefulness  attending  melting  small  heats  in  cupo- 
las designed  for  more  extended  operations  is  made  plain  by 
the  following:  Suppose  a  44-inch  cupola  is  employed  for 
a  heat  of  12,060  pounds,  the  amount  of  fuel  used,  including 
bed,  being  2140  pounds:  the  ratio  would  be  1  fuel  to  5.63 


Ratio  of  Fuel  to  Iron.  336  Eatio  of  Fuel  to  Iron. 

iron  melted.  Now  increase  the  heat  by  six  additional 
charges  of  iron  to  37,440  pounds,  maintaining  the  same 
ratio  of  fuel  between  the  charges  as  before:  this  gives  49 GO 
pounds  total  fuel  used,  and  the  ratio  is  now  1  to  7.53. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  things  to  be  considered  when 
comparisons  are  made. 

It  may  be  a  subject  for  remark  that  such  a  firm  is  melt- 
ing iron  with  a  much  lower  ratio  of  fuel  to  iron  than 
another,  and  much  annoyance  is  caused  by  this  undisputed 
fact;  but  all  this  would  perhaps  be  modified  if  careful 
investigation  were  instituted.  Possibly  this  distinguished 
firm  is  melting  carefully  selected  irons  of  the  same  mixture 
every  day  without  deviation  all  the  year  round — a  state 
of  things  eminently  conducive  to  perfect  practice;  while 
those  with  whom  they  have  been  compared  are,  owing  to 
the  numerous  and  sometimes  unpleasant  changes  in  the 
nature  and  quality  of  the  castings  made,  compelled  to 
change  their  mixtures  often,  and  more  than  once  during 
the  same  heat  sometimes. 

Means  for  rapid  transit,  or  close  proximity  of  the  cupola 
to  the  moulds  which  are  to  be  poured,  will  favor  metal  of 
a  low  temperature  being  melted,  thus  allowing  a  diminished 
ratio  of  fuel.  But  if  facilities  for  conveying  are  limited 
and  the  moulds  far  removed,  it  is  incumbent  that  hotter 
metal  be  provided  to  compensate  for  the  extra  time  occu- 
pied in  handling.  This  increased  temperature  can  only  be 
obtained  by  increasing  the  ratio  of  fuel. 

The  preceding  represents  in  some  measure  a  few  of  the 
reasons  for  the  high  ratio  of  fuel  to  iron  as  necessitated 
in  foundries  which  are  unfavorably  circumstanced  as  de- 
scribed; still,  without  doubt,  there  is  considerable  waste  of 
fuel  almost  everywhere,  that  might  be  remedied  if  rigid 
investigation  by  qualified  practitioners  were  established. 
Cupolas  now  yielding  unsatisfactory  results  at  many  places 
might  be  changed  to  the  best  of  their  kind  if  those 


Ratio  of  Fuel  to  Iron.  337  Katio  of  Fuel  to  Iron. 

who  work  them  were  compelled  to  learn  the  importance 
of  placing  every  charge  of  fuel  and  iron  in  the  cupola 
systematically  and  precise.  This,  of  course,  can  only  be 
done  by  the  cupola-man  who  knows  that  in  order  to  retain 
the  heat  within  the  cupola  and  not  have  it  wasted  up  the 
stack  more  than  ordinary  attention  must  be  paid  to  a 
favorable  disposition  of  the  materials  charged,  and,  further, 
that  to  insure  regularity  in  both  speed  and  fluidity  every 
pound  of  such  material  should  be  carefully  weighed.  By 
this  means  alone  can  he  pursue  a  course  of  safe  experi- 
mental practice,  the  results  of  which  if  carefully  noted  will 
furnish  him  with  all  the  knowledge  essential  for  supplying 
metal  from  his  cupola  at  all  times  the  exact  temperature 
demanded,  and  without  fear  of  disappointment.  No  reli- 
ance can  be  placed  on  any  method  of  melting  that  does 
not  include  a  correct  proportioning  of  the  fuel  and  iron 
at  every  charge. 

Besides  this,  it  is  incumbent  on  the  cupola-man  that  he 
carefully  observe  the  action  of  his  tuyeres,  changing  the 
form  from  time  to  time,  raising  or  lowering  them,  increas- 
ing or  diminishing  their  number;  or,  if  the  tuyeres  be 
continuous,  trying  the  effect  of  a  gradual  contraction  or 
expansion  from  their  original  width.  Expansion  of  tuyere 
area  with  no  increase  in  wind-pressure  will  soften  the  blast 
while  contracting  them  will  have  the  effect  of  creating  a 
cutting  blast  if  original  wind-pressure  is  maintained.  By 
observing  results  from  these  several  changes,  as  well  as 
increasing  and  decreasing  wind-pressure  in  the  blast-pipes, 
he  may  arrive  at  the  very  best  practice  possible  for  the 
cupola  he  manages,  and  the  ratio  of  fuel  may  be  reduced 
intelligently  to  the  lowest  possible  rate  consistent  with  the 
actual  requirements  of  the  foundry. 

Much,  if  not  all,  of  the  annoyance  and  loss  consequent 
on  melting  inferior  irons,  which  include  large  quantities  of 
the  meanest  machinery,  stove-plate  scrap,  etc.,  in  cupolas 


Battler.  338  Rectangular  Cupola. 

of  moderate  capacity  may  be  obviated  by  a  persistent 
adoption  of  the  fluxing  method.  Usually,  when  large  pro- 
portions of  such  iron  are  melted  in  the  cupolas  above 
mentioned,  the  heat  is  short-lived  and  unsatisfactory;  but 
if  a  suitable  flux  is  used,  the  dirt  in  the  iron  intimately 
associates  with  it  and  forms  a  thin  liquid  slag,  which,  by 
means  of  a  slag-hole  placed  a  short  distance  below  the 
tuyeres,  can  be  run  off  at  pleasure,  and  so  continue  the 
melting  uninterruptedly  for  an  indefinite  space  of  time. 
See  CUPOLA. 

Rattler. — A  name  given  in  some  localities  to  the 
tumbling-barrels  used  for  cleaning  castings.  See  TUM- 
BLING-BARRELS. 

Rawhide  Hammers  are  light  mallets  made  entirely 
of  hide  (except  the  handle),  and  are  especially  valuable 
where  light,  thin  castings  are  made.  See  MALLET. 

Rectangle. — A  right-angled  parallelogram;  a  four- 
sided  figure  having  right  angles  only. 

Rectangular  Cupola. — This  style  of  cupola  is  not 
often  met  with  at  this  day,  the  common  round  or  oval  one 
having  taken  its  place  almost  everywhere.  The  sides  of 
these  cupolas  were  usually  composed  of  four  cast-iron 
plates  which  rested  vertically  on  a  solid  foundation  of  stone 
or  brick,  and  were  held  together  by  bolts  at  the  corners. 
The  widest  plates  were  about  one  third  longer  than  the 
others,  and  it  is  one  of  these  wide  plates  which  faces  the 
foundry,  being  provided  with  a  breast-hole  at  the  bottom, 
which  answers  for  tap-hole,  and  furnishes  means  for  rak- 
ing out  when  done  melting.  In  order  that  the  greatest 
quantity  of  metal  possible  might  be  gathered  on  the  bot- 
tom before  a  tap  was  made,  it  was  customary  to  pierce  each 
side  with  several  holes  about  8  inches  apart,  one  above  the 


Red  Brass.  339  Red  Lead. 

other,  so  that  by  means  of  a  flexible  hose  or  a  sliding  pipe 
the  tuyeres  might  be  raised  as  the  metal  accumulated,  the 
blast  being  suspended  during  the  process  of  raising  the 
pipe  and  making  the  lower  holes  good  with  suitable  plugs. 
The  height  of  these  cupolas  was  about  three  times  the 
length  of  the  long  side,  and  the  hole  was  lined  with  ordi- 
nary square  fire-brick,  the  bottom  being  made  with  sand 
as  now.  See  CUPOLA;  BREAST-HOLE. 

Keel  Brass. — The  common  red  brass  called  red  tom- 
bac, used  for  cheap  jewelry,  is  composed  of  copper  11, 
zinc  1.  Red  sheet  brass  is  copper  11,  zinc  2.  A  good 
red  brass  for  turning:  copper  24,  zinc  5,  lead  8.  Red 
brass  for  fine  castings:  copper  24,  zinc  5,  bismuth  1, 
the  latter  to  be  added  just  before  pouring.  See  TOMBAC. 

Red  Hematite. — A  very  important  class  of  iron 
ores,  which  vary  in  color  from  a  deep-bright  red  to  gray. 
Its  streak  and  powder  are  a  blood-red.  Specular  iron  is 
a  variety  of  hematite  often  found  in  beautifully  colored 
crystals.  Clay  ironstone  consists  of  hematite  mixed  with 
certain  proportions  of  clay  and  other  impurities.  The 
common  red  chalk  is  a  variety  of  hematite  mixed  with 
clay.  It  is  a  valuable  iron  ore,  and  yields  when  pure  about 
70  per  cent  of  metallic  iron.  Its  powder  is  used  as  a  color- 
ing material  for  paints  and  for  polishing  metals.  The 
variety  called  "puddler's-mine,"  being  of  a  soft,  compact 
nature,  is  used  for  making  and  repairing  the  bottoms  of 
puddling-furnaces;  when  used  for  this  purpose  it  is  called 
"  ore  "  by  the  puddlers.  See  ORES;  PUDDLIJSTG-FURN'ACE. 

Red  Lead. — When  metallic  lead  is  exposed  at  a  red 
heat  to  a  current  of  air,  the  lead  rapidly  combines  with 
oxygen,  and  the  oxide  so  produced  fuses.  It  forms,  on 
cooling,  crystalline  masses  of  a  greenish-yellow  color;  this 


Bed  Ochre.  340  Reduction  of  Metals 

constitutes  the  litharge  of  commerce.  Red  lead  is  pro- 
duced when  the  lead  is  oxidized  so  that  the  oxide  formed 
shall  not  be  fused,  and  when  the  metal  is  all  converted 
into  the  yellow  powder,  increasing  the  heat  to  incipient 
redness.  Oxygen  continues  to  be  absorbed  until  one  third 
of  the  metal  is  converged  into  peroxide  ;  this  is  the  pure  red 
lead.  See  LEAD;  LITHARGE. 

Red  Ochre.— One  of  the  soft,  earthy  varieties  of  red- 
hematite  iron  ore.  See  RED-HEMATITE. 

Red-short. — Iron  or  steel  is  by  the  millmen  termed 
red-short  when  it  shows  an  impaired  malleability  at  a  red 
heat.  See  COLD-SHORT. 

Red  Tombac. — See  RED  BRASS. 

Reduction  of  Metals. — The  circumstances  under 
which  the  metals  are  found  in  nature  are  exceedingly 
diverse,  some  being  found  in  a  native  state  or  alloyed  with 
other  metals,  as  gold,  silver,  bismuth,  and  some  others; 
some  combined  with  arsenic,  as  cobalt,  nickel,  etc.;  but 
by  far  the  most  abundant  forms  in  which  the  metals  are 
to  be  found  are  combinations  with  oxygen  and  sulphur. 
There  are  few  of  the  metals  that  do  not  exist  naturally  in 
the  state  of  oxides,  which  are  either  free  or  else  combined 
with  acids,  forming  salts.  The  majority  of  the  metals 
exist  also  in  nature  combined  with  sulphur.  The  native 
compounds  of  the  metals  are  termed  ores,  and  the  metal  is 
said  to  be  mineralized  by  the  substance  to  which  it  is 
united.  The  several  processes  of  reduction,  or  extracting 
the  metal,  must  of  course  be  regulated  by  the  composition 
of  the  ores  in  which  it  is  contained.  When  the  metal 
exists  only  in  an  oxidized  condition,  the  ore  is  heated  in 
contact  with  the  fuel,  by  which  carbon  is  supplied  in 


Reeking  Ingot-moulds.  341  Reeking  Ingot-moulds. 

abundance  for  its  reduction.  The  carbon  combines  with 
the  oxygen  and  the  metal  is  set  free.  Should  the  mineral- 
izing substance  be  anything  else  than  oxygen,  carbon,  no 
matter  how  intense  the  heat,  could  produce  no  effect  upon 
the  ore.  Native  sulphurets,  etc.,  for  this  reason  are  not 
acted  upon  by  carbon;  and  in  order  to  reduce  the  metal 
from  its  sulphuret,  the  ores  of  lead,  zinc,  copper,  etc.,  are 
first  reduced  to  powder  and  heated  to  redness  in  a  current 
of  air  by  the  oxygen,  of  which  the  sulphur  is  converted 
into  sulphurous  and  sulphuric  acid,  while  the  metal  is  ox- 
idized. This  process  is  termed  calcination.  A  great  part 
of  the  sulphuric  acid  formed  is  carried  off  with  the  current 
of  air,  and  the  remaining  product  is  a  sulphate  of  the 
metal.  When  the  salt  so  formed  is  deoxidized  by  contact 
with  the  fuel,  the  excess  of  oxide,  abandoning  its  oxygen, 
yields  an  equivalent  quantity  of  metal,  which,  however, 
would  be  impure  and  of  inferior  quality,  having  dissolved 
a  portion  of  the  sulphuret  reproduced  by  the  reduction  of 
the  sulphur  from  the  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  get  rid  of  that  residual  portion  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  before  the  deoxidizing  process  commences,  and  this  is 
effected  by  mixing  up  a  quantity  of  lime  with  the  calcined 
mass.  The  lime  decomposes  the  metallic  sulphate,  com- 
bines with  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  sets  the  oxide  free;  and 
when  the  deoxidizing  flames  of  the  reverberatory  furnace 
pass  over  the  calcined  mass,  the  metallic  oxide  being  re- 
duced yields  a  pure  metal,  while  the  sulphate  of  lime,  by 
losing  its  oxygen,  is  brought  to  the  state  of  sulphuret  of 
calcium,  and  remains  a  slag  upon  the  surface.  For  the 
processes  by  which  iron  is  reduced,  see  CAST  IKON  ;  CAL- 
CINATION; etc. 

Reeking  Ingot-moulds. — To  prevent  cast-steel 
ingots  from  sticking  to  the  cast-iron  moulds,  it  is  custom- 
ary, at  some  steel-works,  to  place  the  halves  of  the  moulds 


Refining  Metals.  342  Refining  Metals. 

with  their  faces  down,  upon  a  suitably  provided  support, 
which  permits  the  burning  coal-tar  underneath  them  to 
deposit  a  coating  of  soot  upon  their  surfaces.  The  process 
is  termed  reeking.  See  INGOT-MOULDS;  KUNMING-STEEL 
INGOTS. 

Refining  Metals. — The  art  of  purifying  a  metal  from 
dross,  or  separating  it  from  metallic  alloys.  More  or  less 
impurities  remain  after  the  common  methods  of  reduction 
have  been  employed,  which  can  only  be  eliminated  by  subse- 
quent refining.  Copper,  for  instance,  usually  contains 
small  quantities  of  antimony,  iron,  tin,  etc.,  after  reduction 
in  the  reverberatory  furnace  used  for  this  purpose.  By  re- 
melting  in  the  refining-furnace  and  exposing  the  metal  to 
the  oxidizing  influence  of  the  air,  these  foreign  metals 
oxidize  and  are  converted  to  slag,  which  is  skimmed  off  as 
it  rises  in  the  crucible.  This  operation  subjects  the  copper 
to  oxidization  also,  but  the  copper  oxide  is  reduced  again 
by  adding  coal  to  the  surface  and  stirring  the  metal  with  a 
green-wood  pole.  The  pole  emits  its  gases  forcibly,  and 
creates  a  violent  ebullition  which  exposes  every  portion  to 
the  reducing  action  of  the  coal,  by  which  means  the  oxide 
of  copper  is  deprived  of  its  oxygen  and  the  copper  is  made 
pure.  Tin  and  lead  are  treated  after  the  same  manner 
ordinarily,  but  special  processes  are  followed  for  the  sepa- 
ration of  silver  from  the  latter  metal.  Gold  is  refined  by 
first  dissolving  the  metal  in  aqua  regia  (see  AQUA  REGIA), 
after  which  the  silver,  etc.,  with  which  it  is  usually  alloyed 
may  be  precipitated  by  chemicals  having  no  action  on  the 
solution  of  gold.  Salt  of  iron  is  then  employed  to  precipi- 
tate the  gold  in  a  fine  powder,  which  is  then  melted  and 
cast,  the  product  being  pure  gold.  Refined  silver  is  ob- 
tained by  dissolving  the  metal  in  nitric  acid,  and,  after 
filtering  the  solution,  precipitating  it  with  common  salt  as 
a  chloride  of  silver,  which,  after  being  mixed  with  sul- 


Reflecting-glass.  343  Regenerative  Furnace. 

phuric  acid,  is  acted  upon  by  bars  of  zinc,  by  which  means 
chloride  of  zinc  is  formed  and  the  silver  again  resumes  the 
metallic  state.  See  REDUCING  METALS  ;  SEPARATING 
METALS  FROM  THEIR  ALLOYS.  For  refining  iron,  see  MAL- 
LEABLE IRON;  FINERY-FURNACE  ;  etc. 

Reflecting-glass. — A  small  mirror  confined  within 
a  frame,  having  a  small  handle.  These  glasses  are  supplied 
by  the  foundry  supply  dealers,  and  are  extremely  useful 
for  directing  light  down  into  the  deep  cavities  of  a  mould. 

Reflector  Metal. — Very  good  reflectors  are  made  by 
dipping  the  round  end  of  a  glass  vessel  (which  has  been 
previously  ground)  into  an  alloy  composed  of  tin  49,  lead 
19.  A  thin  coating  of  the  alloy,  remarkably  brilliant  in  ap- 
pearance, will  adhere  to  the  ground  surface.  See  DIAMOND 
AND  BRILLIANT  IMITATIONS. 

Refractory  Materials. — All  such  substances  as 
melt  only  at  the  highest  temperatures  that  can  be  produced 
are  classed  as  refractory.  Amongst  these  are  included  some 
natural  rocks,  as  sandstones,  quartzites,  granites,  etc.;  but 
it  is  not  customary  to  use  these  alone  for  metallurgical 
purposes,  on  account  of  their  liability  to  split  apart  at  high 
temperatures.  The  principal  substances  employed,  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  as  mixtures  for  furnace-linings,  crucibles, 
retorts,  fire-bricks,  etc.,  are  silica,  magnesia,  bauxite, steatite, 
clays,  carbon,  gannister,  coke,  etc.  Nearly  all  clays  require 
to  be  mixed  with  other  materials,  to  counteract  the  ten- 
dency to  shrink  and  crack.  If  it  were  not  for  these  admix- 
tures, the  bricks  made  from  some  of  the  clays  would  soften 
and  melt  away  when  subjected  to  very  high  temperatures. 
A  description  of  the  materials  mentioned,  and  numerous 
other  refractory  substances,  will  be  found  at  their  respective 
places. 


Reheating-furnace.  344  Repairing  the  Cupola. 

Regenerative  Furnace. — The  Siemens  regener- 
ative furnace  is  composed  of  three  divisions,  including  the 
producers,  where  the  crude  gas  is  generated;  the  regenera- 
tors, chambers  containing  a  network  of  fire-brick  passages 
through  which  the  heated  gases  and  flame  may  circulate 
and  the  heat  be  stored  as  they  escape  from  the  furnace,  to 
be  again  mixed  with  the  gases  from  the  producer  and  the 
air  as  they  pass  through  the  regenerator  to  the  furnace 
hearth;  and  the  furnace  itself,  which  is  the  third  division. 
By  this  arrangement  the  outgoing  heated  volatile  products 
heat  the  mass'of  bricks  in  the  chamber,  and  this  again  heats 
the  incoming  air  and  gas  supplied  to  the  furnace.  See 
SIEMENS-MARTIN  STEEL. 

Reheating-furnace.  —  These  furnaces,  although 
used  for  various  purposes,  are  all  of  the  reverberatory  type, 
similar  to  a  puddling-furnace.  They  are  used  for  heating 
wrought-iron  piles,  blooms,  billets,  etc.,  and  the  ingots, 
slabs,  blooms,  etc.,  of  steel,  to  the  temperature  suitable  for 
hammering  or  rolling.  They  are  sometimes  called  balling- 
furnaces.  See  KEVERBERATORY  FURNACE. 

Relievo,  or  Rilievo,  is  a  term  applied  to  works  in 
sculpture  and  the  fine  arts  where  figures  are  made  to  pro- 
ject from  the  ground  or  body  on  which  they  are  formed  and 
to  which  they  remain  attached.  It  is  Basso-rilievo  when  the 
figures  project  only  slightly  from  the  ground,  Mezzo-rilievo 
when  they  stand  out  half  their  natural  proportions,  and 
Alto-rilievo,  or  high  relief,  when  the  figures  are  so  prominent 
from  the  ground  that  merely  a  small  part  of  them  remains 
attached.  See  INTAGLIO. 

Repairing  the  Cupola. — The  first  duty  of  the 
cupola-man,  after  the  refuse  of  the  previous  day  has  been 
carefully  picked  for  whatever  iron  and  unburnt  fuel  may 
be  found,  is  to  chip  out  the  cinder  and  scoria  from  the  in- 


Repairing  the  Cupola.  345  Repairing  the  Cupola. 

side  of  his  cupola  and  ascertain  what  damage  has  been  done 
to  the  walls.  Now,  good  tools  for  this  operations  are  an 
absolute  necessity,  as  the  more  pounding  required  for  the 
loosening  of  this  adhering  dirt,  the  more  will  the  brick  lin- 
ing be  loosened — a  result  to  be  avoided  if  possible.  For  this 
operation  the  cupola-man  should  be  supplied  with  an  ade- 
quate set  of  steel-pointed  chisel-bars,  large  and  small,  and 
these,  along  with  steel  pick-hammers  of  suitable  dimensions, 
should  be  kept  sharp  and  of  proper  temper.  When  tools  of 
this  class  are  supplied  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  chipping 
out  in  such  a  way  as  to  jar  the  bricks  but  little,  and  leave 
the  surface  clean  and  ready  for  the  daubing,  and  in  much 
less  time  than  it  takes  to  do  it  in  the  slipshod  way  it  must 
inevitably  be  done  where  perhaps  only  a  sledge-hammer  is 
used. 

The  chief  object  in  repairing  is  to  maintain  as  near  as 
possible  the  original  shape  of  the  cupola.  Except  at  the 
melting  zone,  just  above  the  tuyeres,  this  may  be  accom- 
plished fairly  well;  but  at  that  point  there  will  be,  owing  to 
the  intense  heat  and  force  of  the  blast  a  decided  tendency 
of  the  bricks  to  waste  away;  and  it  is  just  here  where  the 
judgment  and  skill  of  the  cupola-man  is  put  to  the  test, 
as  by  proper  management  a  lining  may  be  preserved  almost 
indefinitely.  By  careful  observation  it  may  be  seen  which 
parts  are  being  acted  upon  the  most.  Follow  up  at  these 
parts  with  thin  coats  of  daubing  (see  DAUBING),  and  use 
no  more  than  will  adhere  firmly  to  the  wall,  without  fear 
of  its  being  prematurely  loosened  by  the  intense  heat. 
The  bad  effects  from  using  too  much  daubing  of  any  kind 
may  be  understood  when  we  consider  that  most  of  this  dry- 
ing must  take  place  immediately  the  heat  is  intensified  by 
the  admission  of  the  blast;  the  front  of  the  patching  dries 
at  once,  and  the  rapidly  formed  steam  should  find  an  outlet 
at  the  brickwork  behind;  failing  this  it  naturally  forces  off 
the  daubing,  which  falls  over  on  the  stock,  the  result  being 


Reservoir.  346  Hesin, 

that  the  regular  action  of  the  cupola  is  interfered  with  to 
the  extent  of  changing  the  direction  of  the  hlast  and  pre- 
venting the  iron  as  it  melts  from  falling  direct  to  the  bot- 
tom ;  by  this  means  some  iron  finds  its  way  into  the  tuyeres, 
some  lodges  around  them  and  solidifies,  ultimately  choking 
the  orifice  altogether.  Thin  daubing,  well  rubbed  on,  will 
never  fall  away  if  made  of  the  correct  ingredients.  When 
it  has  been  thought  necessary  to  insert  new  bricks  at  parts, 
as  well  as  to  rub  on  more  daubing  than  usual,  light  up  a 
little  earlier  in  order  to  dry  it  out  with  a  more  gentle  heat. 
Better  a  little  extra  expense  in  fuel  than  run  the  risk  of  a 
bad  heat.  See  DAUBING;  CUPOLA. 

Reservoir. — Dams  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
gathering  a  large  quantity  of  metal  are  sometimes  called 
reservoirs;  as  also  are  runner-basins  when  constructed  of 
extraordinary  dimensions  to  receive  the  molten  metal  from 
very  large  pouring-ladles.  See  DAMS;  BASIN;  GATHER- 
ING-METAL. 

Resin  is  a  solid,  inflammable  substance,  of  vegetable 
origin,  being  obtained  from  various  trees  by  making  inci- 
sions in  their  bark  and  allowing  the  liquid  to  exude.  This 
liquid  is  the  essential  oil  of  the  plant,  and  holds  the  resin 
in  solution.  Resins  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  alcohol  dis- 
solves them ;  they  are  of  an  inflammable  nature,  and  yield  a 
dense,  sooty  smoke  when  burning.  Mastic,  sandarac,  lac, 
copal,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  resins  from  which  varnishes  are 
made,  all  of  which  are  readily  dissolved  in  such  solvents  as 
spirits  of  wine,  oil  of  turpentine,  methylated  spirit,  and  wood 
naphtha.  The  evaporation  of  the  spirit,  after  these  varnishes 
have  been  applied,  leaves  a  hard  layer  of  the  resin  on  the 
surface  of  the  object  treated.  The  common  resin,  or  rosin, 
of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the  various  species  of  pine. 
Gum-resins  are  the  solidified  milky  exudations  of  plants. 


Restoring  Burnt  Steel.  $4?  fcetort. 

They  consist  of  resin,  essential  oils,  and  a  gummy  substance 
peculiar  to  the  plant.  The  ammouiacum,  assafcetida,  aloes, 
myrrh,  gamboge,  etc.,  belong  to  this  class;  they  are  all 
soluble  in  rectified  alcohol,  and  are  valuable  as  medicinal 
agents  principally.  Elastic  gums,  as  caoutchouc  or  india- 
rubber  and  gutta-percha,  are  valuable  in  the  arts  and  manu- 
factures; the  former  consists  of  a  thick  milky  juice  of 
certain  trees  growing  in  tropical  countries,  and  is  a  mixture 
of  several  hydrocarbons  with  turpentine  oil.  When  pure  it 
is  nearly  white.  It  will  soften  in  boiling  water,  but  not 
dissolve;  it  is  also  insoluble  in  alcohol,  but  readily  dissolves 
in  coal  naphtha,  rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  pure  ether, 
chloroform,  or  carbonic  disulphide.  Caoutchouc  is  ren- 
dered more  permanently  elastic  by  combining  with  it  certain 
proportions  of  sulphur.  It  is  then  called  vulcanized  india- 
rubber.  See  GUTTA-PERCHA;  INDIA-RUBBER. 

Restoring  Burnt  Steel. — It  is  said  that  burnt 
steel  may  be  restored  by  making  a  powder  composed  of  8 
oz.  sal-ammoniac,  3  oz.  prussiate  of  potash,  3  oz.  borax, 
1J  Ibs.  resin,  2  oz.  blue  clay,  £  pint  alcohol,  and  £  pint  of 
water.  These  ingredients  are  to  simmer  over  a  fire  until 
dried  to  a  powder;  the  burnt  steel  may  then  be  reheated, 
dipped  in  the  powder,  and  hammered.  See  TEMPERING. 

Retort. — A  vessel  employed  for  the  purpose  of  decom- 
posing bodies  by  the  aid  of  heat,  the  process  being  termed 
distillation.  Those  used  in  the  chemist's  laboratory  are  a 
kind  of  globular  bottle,  with  a  long  neck  bent  at  an  angle 
of  about  sixty  degrees  with  the  belly  of  the  retort;  they  are 
made  of  glass,  porcelain,  platinum,  earthenware,  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  the  substances  to  be  acted  upon.  The  spirit-lamp, 
gas,  or  sand-bath  is  usually  employed  for  heating  glass 
retorts,  but  when  higher  temperatures  are  required  it  is 
necessary  to  use  those  made  of  platinum  or  earthenware. 


Return-facing.  348  Reverberatory  Furnace. 

Single  retorts  for  distilling  coal-gas  are  usually  made 
D-shaped,  about  21  X  14  inches  X  9  feet,  closed  at  one 
end,  and  provided  with  a  mouthpiece  at  the  other. 

Through  retorts  are  made  twice  this  length,  with  both 
ends  open,  but  having  mouthpieces  which  close  them  dur- 
ing the  process  of  distillation.  Formerly  these  retorts 
were  all  made  of  cast  iron,  but  they  are  fast  being  super- 
seded by  those  made  of  fire-clay,  which  admit  of  higher 
temperatures  and  last  much  longer.  The  distillation  of 
mercury  from  cinnabar  is  conducted  in  retorts  similar  to 
those  used  for  making  illuminating-gas.  See  DISTILLA- 
TION ;  MERCURY  ;  TAR. 

Return- facing. — The  use  of  return-facing  is  con- 
fined principally  to  foundries  manufacturing  thin,  light 
castings,  as  stoves,  etc.;  where,  having  no  coal  mixed 
through  the  sand,  means  must  be  provided,  not  only  to 
scale  the  casting  clean,  but  leave  the  color  uniform  through- 
out. To  effect  this  the  raw  sand  surfaces  of  the  moulds 
are  first  treated  to  a  dusting  of  bolted  hydraulic  cement  or 
German  clay  (a  cheap  substitute  for  heavy  carbon-facing) 
to  fill  the  pores  of  the  sand,  then  a  light  dusting  of  heavy 
facing,  and,  lastly,  the  return-facing  in  just  sufficient 
quantity  to  permit  the  pattern,  when  returned,  to  leave 
its  impression  sharp  and  smooth  without  sticking.  The 
carbonized  preparations  of  return-facings  supplied  by  the 
dealers  are,  as  a  rule,  preferable  to  the  light  charcoal-fac- 
ings usually  employed  for  this  purpose,  as  they  neither  run 
before  the  metal  nor  adhere  to  the  pattern  as,  much  as 
charcoal  is  liable  to.  See  PRINTING;  FACING. 

Reverberatory  Furnace.  —  Democritus  is  sup- 
posed to  have  invented  the  reverberatory  furnace  long 
before  the  birth  of  Christ.  These  furnaces  are  constructed 
so  that  the  materials  (o  be  treated  are  operated  upon  by  the 


Reverse-mould.  349  Reverse-mould. 

heat  of  the  flame  without  their  coming  into  direct  contact 
with  the  fuel.  The  reverberatory  furnace  is  commonly 
employed  for  metallurgic  purposes,  and  is  especially  ad- 
vantageous for  extracting  metals  from  their  ores,  and  for 
the  numerous  processes  connected  with  the  manufacture 
of  malleable  iron,  steel,  melting  cast-iron,  brass,  etc. 

The  furnace  consists  usually  of  a  rectangular  fire-brick 
construction  about  twelve  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and 
from  five  to  six  feet  in  height,  contained  within  iron 
plates  which  are  bound  together  by  an  arrangement  of 
buckstays  and  bolts.  The  fireplace  at  one  end  is  separated 
from  the  bed  proper  by  a  fire-bridge,  and  an  arched  roof  is 
made  to  dip  towards  the  chimney  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  furnace;  by  this  means  the  flame  is  caused  to  play 
with  considerable  force  over  the  fire-bridge  and  against 
the  roof,  to  be  again  reflected  or  reverberated  downwards 
upon  whatever  has  been  placed  upon  the  bed  behind  the 
bridge.  A  charging-hole  is  provided  on  the  side  opposite 
to  the  fireplace  for  fuel,  and  a  larger  one  for  charging  the 
materials  to  be  operated  upon  is  also  provided  convenient 
to  the  bed,  some  distance  from  its  bottom.  The  latter  hole 
is  opened  and  closed  by  a  vertically  sliding  door,  the  inner 
side  of  which  is  lined  with  fire-bricks,  and  is  controlled  by 
means  of  a  lever;  but  the  hole  at  the  fireplace  is  simply 
stopped  with  coal.  A  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  chimney 
allows  the  cinder  produced  during  the  puddling  process 
to  escape  as  it  flows  down  from  the  bed  over  a  bridge  built 
in  the  flue.  Other  smaller  holes  are  provided  to  permit  a 
free  use  of  iron  bars  for  polling,  etc.,  during  the  operations. 
ExcepHn  a  few  minor  particulars,  the  air  or  reverberatory 
furnace  for  melting  metals  answers  to  the  above  description. 
See  PUDDLING-FURNACE;  MALLEABLE  IKON;  POLLING. 

Reverse-mould  is  sometimes  termed  &  dummy-block, 
and  consists  of  forming  in  loam  or  sand,  by  means  of  the 


Kevolving  Furnace.  350  Revolving  Furnace. 

spindle-centre  or  otherwise,  any  model,  the  impression  of 
which  it  is  desired  to  copy  in  the  cope  or  other  containing 
part  of  the  mould.  This  means  is  employed  when  it  is 
desired  to  obtain  a  casting  such  as  a  bevel  or  spur-wheel, 
etc.,  without  incurring  the  expense  of  supplying  a  whole 
pattern. 

For  example,  if  it  was  required  to  mould  a  bevel-wheel 
after  this  manner,  the  first  operation  would  be  to  strike  a 
reverse-mould  or  "dummy "  answering  to  the  permanent 
joint  at  the  points  of  the  teeth,  and  from  thence  over  the 
entire  back  of  the  wheel  exact  to  the  wheel's  form  and 
dimensions  on  that  side.  This  would  give  a  true  model  of 
the  back,  the  impression  of  which  being  obtained  in  the 
cope,  it  only  remains  to  first  destroy  the  "  dummy  "and 
then  sweep  o\it  the  lower  surface  direct,  commencing  at 
the  points  of  the  teeth  again,  as  for  the  cope  impression. 
After  the  teeth  are  rammed  from  the  segment  supplied, 
and  the  arm-cores  have  been  placed,  the  cope,  as  previ- 
ously obtained  from  the  reverse-mould,  is  returned. 

The  joint  is  the  original  one  from  which  the  cope  im- 
pression was  taken;  if  tops  of  teeth  and  arm-cores  are 
made  to  correspond  with  the  original  model  obtained,  the 
mould  will  close  as  accurately  as  when  a  full  pattern  is 
employed.  A  thicknessed  pan-core  serves  as  a  reverse- 
mould  for  the  cope.  See  DUMMY-BLOCK;  KETTLE;  BACK- 
ING-OUT. 

Revolving  Furnace. — Revolving  furnaces  consist 
of  horizontal  wrought-iron  cylinders  lined  with  fire-brick, 
one  end  of  which  communicates  with  a  fireplace  and  the 
other  to  a  chimney,  which,  being  revolved  on  rollers  as  the 
flame  passes  through  the  interior,  permits  a  thorough  mix- 
ing of  the  mass  and  exposes  every  portion  of  the  material  to 
the  action  of  the  heat.  This  description  of  furnace  is  princi- 
pally employed  for  roasting,  desulphurizing,  and  chloridiz- 


Revolving  Oven.  351  Rice-glue  Statuary. 

ing  ores.  The  Danks  and  other  furnaces  of  a  rotary  kind 
are  used  for  puddling  purposes,  and  consist  of  the  fixed  fire- 
place and  bridge,  but,  instead  of  the  regular  bed,  a  re- 
volving hearth  through  which  the  flames  are  made  to  pass 
to  the  chimney  is  used  for  melting  the  metal.  The  molten 
metal,  being  spread  over  the  interior  by  the  rotary  action 
of  the  chamber,  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  lining, 
which,  being  composed  of  iron  ore,  acts  in  conjunction  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  furnace  gases  to  oxidize  the  carbon  and 
silicon  contained  in  the  iron.  The  spongy  mass  of  malle- 
able iron  produced  is  readily  lifted  out  and  conveyed  to 
the  squeezers  after  the  movable  end  has  been  taken  away 
for  this  purpose.  See  PUDDLING-FURNACE  ; 
IKON. 

Revolving  Oven. — See  KOTARY  OVEN. 
Revolving  Sand-screen.— See 


Rhodium  is  one  of  the  rare  metals  of  the  platinum 
group.  Excepting  iridium,  it  is  the  most  infusible  metal, 
very  hard  and  brittle,  and  of  a  whitish  color.  When  this 
metal  is  alloyed  with  copper,  bismuth,  or  platinum,  it  may 
be  dissolved  with  them  in  aqua  regia,  but  it  is  insoluble 
in  acids  when  pure.  Owing  to  its  unalterable  nature, 
rhodium  has  been  extensively  used  to  form  the  nibs  of 
metallic  pens  and  other  similar  purposes.  See  PLATINUM. 

Rice-glue  Statuary.— Statuary  composed  of  rice- 
glue  or  paste  is  a  very  common  production  of  the  Japanese, 
who  mix  the  flour  with  cold  water  and  then  boil  to  the 
consistency  of  paste,  adding  whatever  color  is  desired. 
This  paste,  when  stiffened  by  a  further  addition  of  flour  to 
the  consistency  of  clay,  is  then  modelled  and  allowed  to 


Riddles.  353  Kiddles. 

dry,  when  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  marble,  and  will 
take  a  beautiful  polish.  See  STATUARY-FOUNDING  ;  MOD- 
ELLING; PLASTER-CASTS. 

Riddles. — There  is  no  tool  that  a  moulder  uses  more 
constantly  than  a  riddle,  and  it  behooves  the  proprietor  to 
buy  the  very  best  riddle  that  he  can  find.  The  reason  is 
obvious.  A  cheap  riddle  is  put  together  in  the  quickest 
manner  possible,  the  wood  used  in  the  rim  is  of  the  com- 
monest kind,  and  much  too  light  for  the  purpose.  The 
wire  is  bought  by  the  pound,  therefore  the  lighter  wire 
is  put  in  the  riddle  to  lessen  the  cost;  the  wire  for,  say,  a 
No.  6  extra-heavy  riddle  is  used  for  a  No.  4  cheap  riddle, 
etc.;  then  the  cloth  is  cut  so  sparingly  that  it  does  not 
wrap  upon  the  rim  far  enough  to  hold  for  any  length  of 
time.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  one  or  the  other  (cloth  or  rim) 
gives  way  before  the  light  wire  wears  out. 

The  brass  riddle  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  use  on  the 
foundry-floor:  it  never  rusts;  the  wires  are  always  clean 
of  sand,  allowing  the  use  of  the  full  mesh.  A  steel-wire 
riddle  will  rust;  and  the  galvanized  riddle  having  wires 
of  a  rough  surface,  the  sand  will  cling  to  them,  filling 
up  the  meshes,  thereby  taking  longer  time  to  riddle  the 
sand. 

For  iron,  coal,  or  cinder  riddles  the  heavy  crimped 
iron-wire  riddle  is  the  best.  Those  made  especially  for 
sifting  iron  out  of  sand  and  other  similar  uses  should  be 
made  one-inch  mesh,  from  good  strong  iron  wire.  Parting- 
sand  riddles  or  sieves,  any  diameter,  with  or  without  cross- 
bars, can  be  obtained  from  the  dealers,  and  special  sizes  of 
heavy  steel  sand-screens  may  be  had  from  the  same  parties, 
as  well  as  an  endless  variety  of  power  and  portable  sand- 
sifting  machines.  The  revolving  riddle  or  screen  is  a 
remarkable  improvement  on  existing  methods  for  sifting 
and  mixing  sand-  See  SAND-SCREEN, 


Rigging,  353  Roasting  Ores. 


"Rigging"  and  "tackle"  are  synonymous 
terms  in  the  foundry,  meaning  the  furnishings  or  appa- 
ratus provided  for  the  construction  of  moulds.  Founda- 
tion-plate, rings,  plates,  beams,  slings,  bolts,  etc.,  constitute 
a  large  proportion  of  the  rigging  for  loam-work;  while  the 
flasks,  cheeks,  drawback-plates,  clamps,  bolts,  beams,  etc., 
represent  the  rigging  almost  always  required  for  any  im- 
portant mould  in  green  or  dry  sand. 

Ring.  —  A  word  of  general  application  to  all  circular 
contrivances  for  moulding  purposes,  but  invariably  recog- 
nized as  meaning  the  cast-iron  ring  which  encircles  the 
seating  of  a  loam-mould,  upon  which  ring  the  cope  is  built, 
and  by  means  of  which  it  is  passed  to  the  oven  and  from 
thence  back  to  the  pit  for  final  closing  over  the  mould. 
See  COPE-RING;  COPE;  LOAM-MOULDING;  BUILDING-RING. 

Ring-bolt.—  See  EYE-BOLT. 

Riser.  —  A  gate  set  on  the  top  or  leading  from  the  side 
of  a  casting,  either  to  indicate  when  the  mould  is  filled 
with  metal  or  to  be  used  as  a  means  for  introducing  fresh 
supplies  of  hot  fluid  metal  to  make  good  the  deficiency 
caused  by  shrinkage.  In  the  latter  instance  the  riser  is 
often  called  a  cut-off  or  flow-gate;  in  the  former  the  terms 
"  rising-head"  or  "  feeding-head"  are  commonly  used.  See 
CUT-OFF;  FLOW-GATE;  FEEDING-HEAD;  FEEDING-ROD. 

Rising-head.—  See  RISER. 

Roasting  Ores.  —  Ores  are  roasted  in  order  to  sepa- 
rate the  volatile  bodies  from  those  which  are  more  fixed, 
and  is  generally  performed  in  a  current  of  air  so  as  to 
effect  simultaneous  oxidation.  See  ORES;  WEATHERING 
ORES. 


Eock.  354  Rod-iron. 

Rock. — A  stony  substance  which  forms  a  great  part  of 
the  earth's  crust,  sometimes  loose  and  friable-like  sand, 
and  again  compact,  like  granite  and  limestone.  Rocks  are 
classified  as  primitive,  rocks  of  transition,  stratified,  allu- 
vial depositions,  and  volcanic,  and  modifications  resulting 
from  the  conditions  to  which  they  have  been  exposed. 

Rock-crusher. — A  mill  for  breaking  and  crushing 
rocks;  it  may  also  be  used  for  pulverizing  quartz,  gold  or 
silver  ores,  plumbago,  Portland  cement,  rosin,  foundry 
facings,  etc.  Some  of  the  machines  used  for  this  purpose 
will  work  either  wet  or  dry,  and  deliver  a  finished  product. 
Their  capacity  is  3  to  4  tons  per  hour  on  phosphate  rock, 
1|  to  2  tons  per  hour  on  Portland  cement,  quartz,  or  ores, 
depending  on  hardness  of  material  to  be  pulverized  and 
fineness  of  product,  and  will  grind  from  30  to  250  mesh 
with  equal  facility.  See  SAND-PULVERIZER. 

Rock-crystal. — A  common  name  for  the  finest  and 
purest  quartz  or  transparent,  crystallized  silica.  The  pebble 
lenses  for  spectacles,  etc.,  are  made  from  rock-crystal.  See 
QUARTZ;  SILICA. 

Rock-oil.— See  PETROLEUM. 

Rock-sand. — The  name  given  to  all  moulding-sands 
obtained  by  pulverizing  the  rock;  their  value  is  regulated 
according  to  the  durability  they  possess.  The  new  red- 
sandstone  is  preferable  for  this  purpose,  as  its  nature  is 
refractory,  and  it  may  by  artificial  means  be  made  to  an- 
swer nearly  every  description  of  mould.  See  FACING-SAND  ; 
CORE-SAND;  etc. 

Rod-iron. — The  common  round  and  square  rolled 
iron,  used  in  the  foundry  for  making  feeding-rods,  gaggers, 
lifters,  core-irons,  mould-stiffeners,  etc. 


Rolled  Glass.  .  355  Bolls. 

Rolled  Glass. — An  inferior  kind  of  plate-glass  about 
one  inch  in  thickness  is  now  made  for  common  purposes  by 
first  obtaining  the  requisite  quantity  of  molten  glass  in  a 
suitable  dipper  and  then  emptying  it  on  a  casting-table,  on 
the  edges  of  which  are  the  thickness  strips,  on  which  the 
roller  travels  as  it  spreads  the  glass  over  the  surface. 

Rolls  are  cylindrical  rollers  of  steel  or  cast  iron,  which 
when  mounted  in  the  housings  so  that  they  cannot  recede 
from  each  other,  and  provided  with  suitable  gearing  for 
causing  them  to  revolve,  are  employed  for  reducing  metals 
to  plates,  rails,  bars,  etc.  Steel  is  fast  taking  the  place  of 
cast  iron  for  the  manufacture  of  rolls. 

Cast-iron  rolls  are  made  to  present  a  hard  steely  surface 
by  casting  the  plain  body  in  a  smooth  cast-iron  chill-mould, 
the  ends  of  the  casting  being  formed  in  the  sand  or  loam  as 
for  soft  rolls.  Common  soft  rolls  may  be  swept  horizontally, 
as  described  in  "  The  Iron  Founder,"  p.  274;  also  vertically, 
as  an  ordinary  loam-mould;  or  they  may  be  moulded  from 
patterns  in  either  of  the  positions  mentioned — the  only 
difference  being  that  the  pattern  for  horizontal  moulding 
must  be  equally  divided  lengthwise,  whilst  the  one  for  ver- 
tical would  consist  of  a  separate  upper  and  lower  neck  and 
body  patterns,  with  drag,  check,  and  cope  parts  to  match. 
The  latter  represents  the  method  to  be  employed  for  chilled 
rolls,  excepting  that  instead  of  the  body-pattern  and  cheek- 
part,  the  chill  is  here  substituted,  consisting  of  a  smooth 
cast-iron  mould  of  sufficient  thickness  to  absorb  the  heat 
rapidly,  and  thus  produce  a  hard  steely  surface  by  prevent- 
ing any  separation  of  the  chemically  combined  carbon  into 
graphite  at  that  part. 

Whatever  mode  of  moulding  is  adopted,  it  is  all  impor- 
tant that  the  metal  be  introduced  at  the  lower  neck,  away 
from  any  direct  action  on  the  chill;  otherwise  the  chill  may 
be  irretrievably  damaged,  and,  if  the  stream  be  caused  to 


Rolling-mill.  356  •    Boot's  Positive  Blower. 

flow  in  a  tangential  direction,  the  molten  mass  within  will 
be  made  to  rotate  rapidly,  and  thus  collect  all  the  lighter 
scum  in  the  centre,  which,  as  the  mould  is  filled,  mounts 
upward,  to  be  finally  ejected  into  the  open  riser  above.  See 
KISER. 

Rolling-mill  is  where  the  balls  from  the  puddling- 
furnace,  after  being  operated  upon  by  the  squeezer,  are,  by 
means  of  successive  passes  through  the  various  rolls,  re- 
duced in  bulk,  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  length, 
until  the  desired  bars  or  sheets  are  produced.  See  MAL- 
LEABLE IRON;  TRAIN. 

Rolling-over. — A  term  applied  to  the  method  of  ob- 
taining bottom  or  lower  portions  of  mould  by  first  ramming 
the  pattern  within  the  drag  or  nowel  part,  and  then  revers- 
ing the  position  of  the  flask,  by  means  proportionate  to  its 
size  and  weight.  Ordinarily  the  pattern  is  placed  face  down 
on  the  follow-board  or  match-plate,  over  which  is  set  the 
nowel  or  drag.  The  pattern,  being  first  covered  with  facing- 
sand,  is  the-n  subjected  to  a  process  of  ramming  until  the 
flask  is  filled  with  sand,  when,  if  the  flask  be  an  open  one, 
a  board  or  plate  is  laid  over  and  clamped  firmly  to  the  fol- 
low-board, but  should  there  be  cross-bars  in  the  flask,  the 
plate  is  dispensed  with.  After  clamping,  the  whole  is  rolled 
over,  and  is  ready  for  subsequent  operations.  See  FOLLOW- 
BOARD;  MATCH-PLATE. 

Roman  Cement. — A  beautiful  cement,  improperly 
called  Roman,  is  made  as  follows:  Calcine  3  parts  of 
ordinary  clay,  and  mix  it  with  2  parts  lime;  grind  it  to 
powder,  and  calcine  again. 

Root's  Positive  Blower.— The  internal  operating 
parts  of  this  positive  blower  consist  of  two  revolvers,,  each 


Kope. 


357 


Hope. 


of  which  is  operative.  Externally  the  blower  consists  of 
the  case,  four  journals  and  journal-boxes,  four  cut  gears, 
an  oil-tight  housing,  and  two  driving-pulleys.  This 
blower  operates  by  a  regular  displacement  of  air  at  each 
revolution,  whether  it  runs  fast  or  slow.  When  the  air 
enters  the  case  at  the  opening  for  induction,  and  is  closed 
in  by  the  wings  of  the  revolvers,  it  is  absolutely  confined, 
and  positively  forced  forward  until  brought  to  the  eduction- 
pipe,  where  it  must  be  discharged,  or  the  machine  stop,  if 
perfectly  tight,  as  there  can  be  no  backward  escapement  of 
the  air  after  it  once  enters  the  case,  the  contact  being  kept 
up  at  all  times  in  the  centre  of  the  blower  between  the 
pistons  or  revolvers,  thus  preventing  any  escape  of  the  air 
in  that  direction.  See  BLOWER;  BLAST. 

Rope. — Any  cord  over  an  inch  in  diameter  is  called  a 
rope.  Ropes  are  principally  made  of  vegetable  fibre,  the 
chief  of  which  is  hemp.  Coir  rope  is  made  from  the 
fibrous  husk  of  the  cocoanut;  manilla  rope  from  the  fibres 
of  a  species  of  banana;  in  addition  to  which  cotton  and 

TABLE  OF 

DIMENSIONS  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  SHORT- LINKED  CHAINS  AND  ROPES, 
AND  PROOF  OF  THE  CHAIN  IN  TONS.    (HASWELL.) 


°c 

11 
5° 

Weight 
per 
Fathom. 

•3.S 

£i 

Circum. 
of  Rope. 

la 

0)  c   ^ 

£tffc 

*jj 

11 

0° 

Weight 
per 
Fathom. 

11 

*S 

Circum. 
of  Rope. 

Weight  of 
Rope  per 
Fathom. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

A 

6 

.75 

81 

1.5 

H 

28 

6.5 

7 

10.5 

1 

8.5 

1.5 

8* 

2.5 

£ 

32 

7.75 

n 

12 

T7* 

11 

2.5 

4 

3.75 

A 

36 

9.25 

3 

15 

14 

3.5 

4f 

5 

44 

10.75 

9 

17.5 

T9ff 

18 

4.5 

54 

7 

H 

50 

12.5 

n 

19.5 

' 

24 

5.25 

6i 

8.7 

i 

56 

14 

10 

22 

NOTE. — The  ropes  of  the  sizes  given  in  the  table  are  considered  to  be  of  equal 
strength  with  the  chains. 


Rope-slings.  358  Rosin-cores. 

other  similar  substances  enter  largely  into  the  business  of 
rope-making.  Wire  rope,  both  iron  and  steel,  is  now  ex- 
tensively employed  both  on  shipboard  and  on  land.  The 
machines  invented  by  Mr.  John  Good,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
and  others  have  made  it  possible  to  so  manufacture 
ropes  that  their  strength  may  be  t  measured  with  the 
greatest  exactness.  Large  cable-laid  ropes  consist  of  three 
large  strands,  each  made  up  of  three  smaller  strands. 
Hawser-laid  rope  has  only  three  strands,  each  containing  a 
sufficient  number  of  yarns  to  make  up  the  required  thick- 
ness. 

Rope-slings. — A  very  handy  and  useful  substitute 
for  heavy  iron  slings,  when  the  flasks  to  be  turned  over  are 
not  too  ponderous.  Made  as  a  single  strand,  with  eyes  at 
each  end,  or  by  splicing  both  ends  of  the  rope  together, 
they  are  infinitely  superior  to  chains  where  large  wood 
flasks  are  in  constant  service.  The  dealers  supply  these 
slings,  leather-bound  at  theloops  and  middle,  as  desired. 
See  SLINGS. 

Rose's  Fusible  Alloy.— This  alloy  melts  at  201°, 
and  is  composed  of  bismuth  Z,  lead  1,  and  tin  1.  See 
FUSIBLE  ALLOYS. 

Rosin-cores. — When  a  core  contains  more  or  lesc 
rosin  in  its  composition  it  is  called  a  rosin-core.  Where 
large  numbers  of  dry-sand  column  or  other  cores  are  in 
constant  requisition,  rosin  may  be  readily  substituted  for 
flour  if  a  pulverizer  is  obtained  for  grinding  the  cheap 
grades  bought  in  bulk;  besides  which  it  is  much  cheaper 
than  good  foundry  flour. 

To  secure  the  best  results,  it  is  important  that  the  rosin 
be  ground  very  fine  in  order  that  its  gumminess  may  be 
more  generally  disseminated  throughout  the  mass,  and  thus 


Rosse  Telescope.  359  Rosse  Telescope. 

strengthen  the  green  core.  It  may  also  be  said  that, 
owing  to  the  closer  intimacy  of  the  grains  of  rosin,  the 
sand-grains  are  spread  out  and  a  free  passage  is  made  for 
the  gases  to  travel  towards  the  vents.  For  small  cores 
made  from  fine  beach  or  free  sand  the  proportion  of  rosin 
may  be  one  to  eleven;  less  when  stronger  sands  are  used. 
Should  cores  made  from  this  proportion  lack  stiffness  when 
green,  a  little  molasses  or  glue-water  will  serve  to  increase 
their  tenacity.  Large  column-cores,  round  or  square,  may 
be  made  from  a  mixture  composed  of  14  each  of  fire 
and  beach  sand,  with  6  of  moulding-sand  and  3  of  finely 
pulverized  rosin  added.  Cores  made  from  these  ingredi- 
ents, if  well  dried  and  allowed  to  cool  before  removing,  are 
extremely  tough  and  unyielding,  and  for  this  reason  the 
system  of  core-ironing  may  be  of  the  simplest  kind. 

The  sands  composing  these  mixtures  being  principally 
free  sand,  are  at  once  liberated  when  the  rosin  has  burned 
out,  making  the  core-cleaning  a  matter  of  the  least  diffi- 
culty imaginable.  See  FLOUR;  MOLASSES;  GLUE;  CORE- 
SAND. 

Rosse  Telescope. — This  wonderful  telescope  was 
made  by  the  renowned  astronomer  Lord  Rosse  (born  1800, 
died  1867),  who  devoted  a  great  portion  of  his  life  to 
the  improvement  of  reflecting  telescopes,  and  succeeded 
in  mounting  one  of  3-feet  aperture  at  his  home,  Birr 
Castle,  Ireland,  in  the  year  1839.  In  1842  the  now 
celebrated  six-foot  reflector  was  successfully  cast  and 
polished,  being  finally  mounted  in  1845.  The  immense 
tube  which  contains  it  is  54  feet  long  and  7  feet  di- 
ameter. The  speculum  metal  employed  for  casting 
this  reflector  consisted  of  4  equivalents  of  copper  to  1 
of  tin,  which  is  equal  in  weight  to  the  following  pro- 
portions :  Copper  252.8,  tin  117.8.  This  alloy  is  ex- 
ceedingly hard  and  brittle,  will  take  a  beautiful  white 


Kotary  Blower.  3GO  Rotary  Core  oven. 

polish,  and  does  not  readily  tarnish;  but,  owing  to  its 
extreme  brittleness,  there  was  much  difficulty  experi- 
enced in  obtaining  a  speculum  casting  of  this  magni- 
tude absolutely  free  from  shrinkage  cracks,  gas-holes,  and 
a  decided  tendency  to  warp  out  of  shape.  To  obviate  these 
difficulties,  the  cooling  of  the  mass  must  be  controlled  and 
the  gas  eliminated  ;  all  of  which,  we  are  told,  was  success- 
fully accomplished  by  Lord  Kosse  after  a  somewhat  novel 
fashion.  He  formed  the  face  side  of  his  mould  with  hoop- 
irons,  side  by  side,  and  edge  up.  When  this  iron  bed  had 
been  thus  made,  the  outside  edge  was  formed  with  sand,  and 
the  casting  poured  as  an  open  mould.  The  closely  packed 
hoop-iron  bed  contained  comparatively  no  gas-producing 
substances,  as  sand  does,  and  whatever  gas  might  exude 
from  the  metal  thereon  would  be  instantly  pressed  through 
the  countless  interstices  by  the  superincumbent  pressure 
of  the  metal  above.  See  SPECULUM  METAL  ; 


Rosthorn's  Austrian  Metal  for  Cannon.— 

See  GUN-METAL. 

Rotary  Blower.  —  A  machine  provided  with  rotating 
pistons  or  vanes,  the  motion  of  which  produces  an  increased 
current  of  air.  See  BLAST;  BLOWERS. 

Rotary  Core-oven.—  When  properly  constructed, 
this  oven  consists  of  a  fireplace  suitably  located  for  supply- 
ing sufficient  heat  without  burning  the  cores,  and  the  oven 
structure  is  limited  to  the  diameter  of  the  rotating  shelves, 
which  are  affixed  to  a  central  shaft,  the  lower  end  of 
which  rests  in  a  step,  its  vertical  position  being  secured 
by  a  suitable  contrivance  at  the  roof.  The  latter,  like  the 
outer  walls,  must  be  no  farther  from  the  rotating  shelves 
than  is  absolutely  necessary.  By  this  means  quicker  drying 
is  obtained  than  would  occur  if  unnecessary  space  had  to 


Rotary  Squeezer.  361  Houge. 

be  heated.  The  shelves  may  be  either  plain  or  grate,  and 
as  wide  apart  as  will  accommodate  the  class  of  cores  to  be 
dried.  By  this  admirable  contrivance  the  process  of  drying 
cores  is  materially  facilitated,  as  the  core-maker  stands  at 
the  door,  outside  and  away  from  the  heat  and  gas,  simply 
rotating  the  shelves  in  order  to  place  within  or  carry  away 
his  cores.  See  OVENS. 

Rotary  Muddling-furnace. —  See  REVOLVING 
FURNACE. 

Rotary  Squeezer. — A  shingling-machine  used  to 
consolidate  and  weld  together  the  puddled  balls  and  expel 
the  cinder  therefrom.  There  are  many  forms  of  squeezers, 
reciprocating  as  well  as  rotary.  The  rotary  may  be  worked 
either  vertically  or  horizontally.  A  strong  cylindrical  casing 
provided  with  an  opening  equal  to  about  one  fourth  of  its 
circumference  forms  the  outside;  the  inside  consists  of  a 
rotating  cylinder,  placed  excentric  to  the  casing,  but  with 
parallel  faces.  Both  faces  are  deeply  corrugated,  and,  as 
the  inner  cylinder  revolves  towards  the  small  aperture,  the 
puddled  ball,  entering  at  the  widest  part,  is  carried  round 
and  subjected  to  a  gradually  increased  compression  until 
it  is  forced  out  at  the  small  end  in  a  suitable  shape  and 
condition  for  passing  through  the  rolls.  The  process  is 
termed  shingling.  See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

Rottenstone. — A  brownish-gray  or  reddish-brown 
mineral,  found  chiefly  in  Derbyshire,  England.  Its  com- 
position is  alumina  86,  silex  4,  carbon  10.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  decomposed  shale.  It  is  easily  reduced  to  powder, 
and  is  largely  used  for  polishing  metals.  See  POLISHING 
SUBSTANCES. 

Rouge. — The  light-red  powder  used  for  polishing 
speculums,  and  extensively  employed  by  jewellers  for 


Roughing-up.  362  Rubidium  and  Caesium. 

polishing  glass  and  metal  work.  The  protosulphate  of 
iron  is  calcined  until  nothing  remains  but  the  anhydrous 
sesquioxide,  which  is  afterwards  submitted  to  fine  leviga- 
gation.  See  SPECULUM;  LEVIGATION. 

Roughing-rolls. — See  MALLEABLE  IRON  ;  TRAIN. 

Roughing-up.— A  term  applied  to  the  first  process 
when  covering  the  bricks  of  a  loam-mould  with  loam.  After 
the  bricks  are  set  three  fourths  of  an  inch  back  from  the 
sweep-board,  the  coarse,  wet  loam  is  rubbed  vigorously  on  the 
bricks  to  make  it  adhere  firmly,  a  little  more  than  enough 
being  spread  over.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  sweep-board 
scrapes  off  the  surplus,  leaving  a  rough  face — hence  the 
term.  This  rough  face  is  afterwards  made  smooth  by  the 
application  of  fine  loam,  over  which  the  sweep-board  is 
again  drawn  in  the  opposite  direction.  See  BRICKING-UP; 
LOAM-BOARD;  SKINNING-LOAM. 

Rubber. — See  RESIN;  INDIA-RUBBER. 

Rubber  Patterns  are  patterns  made  from  India- 
rubber,  and  vulcanized.  This  substance  makes  elegant 
and  durable  patterns  for  hardware  castings,  etc.,  and  may 
be  readily  attached  to  either  a  card  or  match  plate.  See 
INDIA-RUBBER. 

Rubidium  and  Caesium. — These  metals  were  dis- 
covered by  Bunsen  and  Kirchoff  in  1860  in  some  spring- 
water  they  were  analyzing.  They  are  found  in  other 
waters,  in  the  ashes  of  beet-root,  in  the  mineral  lepidolite, 
and  are  also  found  associated  with  potassium.  Both 
these  metals  are  closely  analogous  to  potassium,  but  are 
more  easily  fusible  and  convertible  into  vapor,  and  also 
have  more  attraction  for  oxygen.  Rubidium  burns  on 


Rubstone.  363  Gunner-stick. 

water  like  potassium,  and  fires  spontaneously  in  the  air. 
See  POTASSIUM. 

Rubstone. — A  prepared  emery  block  for  cleaning 
and  rubbing  scales  from  castings;  it  is  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  casting-brush,  and  for  some  purposes  superior; 
this,  as  well  as  the  vitrified  rubstone,  is  to  be  obtained 
from  the  supply  dealers  in  convenient  sizes  for  hand  use. 
See  EMERY. 

Ruby. — A  precious  stone  almost  equal  in  value  to  the 
diamond.  Some  regard  the  ruby  as  a  red  variety  of  the 
sapphire.  There  are  balas,  or  rose-red  rubies;  alamantine, 
or  violet  and  brown  rubies;  and  oriental  rubies  from  Bur- 
mah  and  Ceylon,  which  are  the  finest  red.  The  ruby  is  a 
silicate  of  magnesia  and  alumina,  with  lime,  manganese, 
and  iron  in  varying  admixtures.  See  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Runner. — A  foundry  term  synonymous  with  "  gate/' 
and  of  general  application  to  almost  every  system  adopted 
by  moulders  for  leading  the  fluid  metal  into  moulds.  For 
instance,  the  metal  enters  the  mould  by  the  runner;  a 
basin  is  termed  runner-basin ;  and  there  is  the  drop- 
runner,  the  s/c?e-runner,  the  fountain-runner,  the  spray- 
runner,  etc.  The  channel-basin  for  pouring  open-sand 
work,  and  every  variety  of  pattern  for  forming  passage- 
ways in  the  sand  or  loam  for  the  metal  to  course  through 
— all  in  their  respective  localities,  are  recognized  as  run- 
ners. See  GATE;  BASIN;  DROP-RUNNER,  FOUNTAIN- 
RUNNER,  etc. 

Runner-box. — The  wood  or  iron  casing  in  which  the 
pouring-basin  is  formed.  See  BASIN. 

Runner-stick. — A  common  name,  in  some  districts, 
for  the  gate-pin.  See  GATE-PIN. 


Stunning-through.  364  Bust-joint. 

Running-steel  Ingots. — See  INGOTS. 

Running-through. — A  rather  questionable  method 
in  some  foundries  of  trying  to  produce  clean  sound  cast- 
ings by  forcing  more  or  less  fluid  metal  through  the  mould 
and  out  at  the  riser  after  the  mould  is  full.  If  the  mould 
manifests  a  condition  of  unrest  by  voiding  air  or  steam, 
which  should  have  been  carried  away  in  a  more  legitimate 
manner  by  the  process  of  venting,  it  is  well  to  continue 
the  pouring  slowly  in  order  to  compensate  for  what  is 
thrown  out  at  the  gates  and  risers;  beyond  this  it  is  simply 
waste,  as  neither  dirt  nor  gas,  remote  from  the  risers,  will 
be  favorably  affected  by  such  a  method,  no  matter  how 
long  the  process  is  continued.  The  value  of  running 
through  into  built-up  risers  accrues  from  the  increased 
pressure  exerted  on  the  casting.  See  CUT-OFF;  EISEK. 

Ruil-up. — A  foundry  term,  signifying  that  the  mould 
is  full  of  molten  metal.  If  there  should  be  any  lacking, 
it  is  then  called  "  short-run."  See  SHORT-BUN. 

Russia  Plate-iron. — A  remarkably  pure  iron  made 
in  Russia,  which,  by  special  processes  of  refining  and  anneal- 
ing, is  rendered  very  tough  and  flexible.  Owing  to  these 
excellent  qualities,  it  is  capable  of  being  rolled  exceedingly 
thin,  and  will  bear  much  hammering  and  bending  at  a  red 
heat  without  cracking  at  the  edges. 

Rust-joint. — A  quick-setting  compound  is  made  from 
pulverized  sal-ammoniac  1  lb.,  flour  of  sulphur  2  Ibs., 
iron  borings  80  Ibs.;  mix  to  a  paste  with  water  in  quanti- 
ties as  required  for  use.  A  better  cement  than  the  above, 
but  requiring  more  time  to  set,  is  made  from  sal-ammoniac 
2  Ibs.,  sulphur  1  lb.,  iron  filings  206  Ibs.  See  CEMENTS. 


Rust,  To  preserve  from.  365  Safety-lamp 

Rust,  To  preserve  from. — It  is  commonly  claimed 
that  iron,  under  ordinary  conditions,  decomposes  water, 
abstracts  the  oxygen  and  combines  with  it,  and  thus 
forms  rust;  but  it  is  now  asserted  that  the  chief  agent  in 
this  phenomenon  is  carbonic  acid,  which,  if  excluded, 
neither  moist  nor  dry  oxygen  can  affect  the  iron  to  rust  it. 

Polished  steel  or  iron  is  prevented  from  rusting  by  ap- 
plying a  coat  of  paraffine,  or  steeping  the  object  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  then 
transferring  it  into  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda 
acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  coating  obtained 
will  resist  the  action  of  either  air  or  water. 

Cast  iron  is  best  preserved  by  rubbing  with  black  lead. 
Polished  work  may  be  varnished  with  wax  dissolved  in 
benzine.  Clean  white  wax  may  be  rubbed  over  polished 
work  when  hot,  and  allowed  to  remain  some  time,  after 
which  rub  over  with  ti  piece  of  serge. 

Deep-seated  rust  may  be  removed  with  benzine,  or  soak 
the  object  in  kerosene  for  a  day. 

Ruthenium. — This  is  the  most  refractory  of  all 
metals  except  osmium.  It  has,  however,  been  fused  in  the 
oxyhydrogen  flame.  Ruthenium  is  scarcely  attacked  by 
nitro-muriatic  acid.  After  fusion  it  has  a  density  of  11.4. 
See  METALS. 

S. 

Safety-lamp. — This  is  simply  an  ordinary  oil-lamp 
enclosed  in  a  cage  of  wire-gauze,  which  permits  the  light 
to  pass  out,  but  prevents  the  exit  of  flame.  This  lamp  is 
the  invention  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy.  The  explosions  of 
carburetted  hydrogen  gas  in  coal-mines,  from  the  unpro- 
tected lamps  of  the  miners,  caused  great  destruction  of  life, 
and  various  arrangements  had  been  fruitlessly  made  t'o 


Saggers.  366  Salamander. 

prevent  such  fearful  accidents.  This  great  philosopher 
found  that  when  a  lamp  is  surrounded  with  a  wire  gauze, 
under  ^  of  an  inch  mesh,  any  explosions  taking  place  from 
the  passage  of  fire-damp  (light  carburetted  hydrogen)  into 
the  lamp  are  not  communicated  to  the  gaseous  mixture 
outside.  The  space  within  the  gauze  often  becomes  filled 
with  flame,  from  the  burning  of  the  mixed  gases  which 
penetrate  the  network,  but  the  isolation  is  so  complete 
that  the  explosive  mixture  outside  is  not  fired. 

The  power  of  wire-gauze  to  prevent  the  passage  of  flame 
may  be  usefully  applied  in  the  foundry.  Let  a  wire-gauze 
be  placed  over  the  outlet  or  vent  from  beneath  a  hollow 
core  where,  when  the  mould  has  been  cast,  just  such  gases 
generate;  the  smoke  and  unburned  gases  will  pass  unin- 
terruptedly through  the  gauze  into  the  atmosphere,  and 
may  be  ignited  with  safety,  as  no  flame  can  possibly  reach 
the  dangerous  gases  below  (to  cause  explosion)  as  long  as 
the  intervening  gauze  is  there  to  prevent  it.  See  VENTING. 

Saggers. — Cast-iron  boxes  in  which  articles  of  cast 
iron  are  packed,  along  with  red-hematite  ore,  or  smithy 
scales,  to  be  converted  into  malleable  cast  iron  by  a  process 
of  decarbonization  in  the  annealing-furnace.  See  MALLE- 
ABLE CAST  IKON. 

Sagging. — If,  on  account  of  unequal  distribution  of 
the  means  employed  for  lifting  flasks,  etc.,  in  the  foundry, 
some  portion  of  the  suspended  object  should  bend  out  of 
parallel,  this  term  would,  by  moulders,  be  used  to  indicate 
that  feature.  Or,  when  some  mould  surface,  as  a  cope-face, 
etc.,  betrays  a  disposition  to  separate  from  the  main  sand 
structure  on  account  of  faulty  workmanship,  or  otherwise, 
it  is  then  said  to  sag. 

Salamander. — When,  through  faulty  charging,  bad 


Salt.  367  Salt  cake. 

fuel,  too  heavy  burdens  of  refractory  ores,  or  from  any 
fault  in  the  shape  of  the  blast-furnace  a  scaffold  should  take 
place,  it  sometimes  occurs  that  an  accumulation  of  cinder 
and  cold  metal  is  formed,  which  proves  highly  refractory, 
and  extremely  difficult  to  remove.  This  obstruction  is 
technically  termed  a  salamander.  In  some  extreme  cases, 
when  all  other  means  used  for  their  removal  has  been 
obstinately  resisted,  dynamite  has  been  successfully  em- 
ployed for  that  purpose.  See  SCAFFOLD. 

Salt. — Common  salt,  or  the  chloride  of  sodium,  is  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  world  in  solid  beds.  Sea-water  con- 
tains about  4  ounces  of  salt  in  every  gallon.  The  springs 
of  New  York  State  furnish  an  enormous  annual  supply. 
Rock-salt  is  seldom  pure  enough  for  use,  and  where  no 
natural  brine-springs  exist,  an  artificial  one  is  formed  by 
sinking  a  shaft  into  the  rock-salt  and  introducing  water, 
if  necessary.  This,  when  saturated,  is  pumped  up  and 
evaporated  more  or  less  rapidly  in  large  iron  pans.  Besides 
its  use  for  preserving  meats,  by  absorbing  water  from  the 
flesh,  it  is  used  as  a  source  of  sodium  in  the  manufacture 
of  caustic  soda,  and  as  a  source  of  chlorine  in  the  produc- 
tion of  chlorohydric  acid.  It  fuses  at  a  red  heat,  and  is 
hence  used  for  glazing  stoneware,  earthenware,  etc.  This 
property  renders  sea-water  unfit  for  foundry  purposes.  See 
SEA-WATER. 

Salt-cake  is  the  sulphate  of  soda  as  prepared  for  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  glass.  This  compound  is  of  great 
value  as  a  flux  for  smelting  valuable  metals.  By  using  a 
little  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  in  the  crucible,  the  scum 
and  dirt  readily  unite  with  the  salt-cake,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  metal  is  much  improved.  See  FLUX. 

Saltpetre.— See  NITRE. 


Sand.  368  Sand  blast. 

Sand. — Fine  particles  of  stone  or  mineral.  The  finely 
granulated  particles  of  siliceous  stones  constitute  the  beach 
and  river  sand,  which,  when  dry,  are  without  cohesion. 
The  various  sands  are  made  through  the  agency  of  winds, 
water,  decomposition  by  chemical  action,  and  other  agencies. 
See  FACING-SAND. 

Sand-bed. — The  sand-bed  of  a  cupola  is  the  sand 
rammed  on  the  bottom,  on  which  the  molten  iron  rests 
after  it  has  been  melted  above  and  fallen  down  through 
the  fuel  thereon.  The  old  or  black  sand  oil  the  floor,  that 
which  has  been  slightly  burned,  is  the  best  to  use  for  this 
purpose;  being  free  from  clay,  it  does  not  bake  hard,  and 
by  using  it  a  little  drier  than  ordinary  moulding-sand  it 
may  be  rammed  well  down  to  a  solid  bed  without  fear  of 
danger  from  blowing  or  boiling — a  too  frequent  occurrence 
when  the  sand  used  for  this  purpose  is  close  arid  too 
damp.  The  thickness  of  the  sand-bed  may  always  be  in- 
creased when  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  depth  from  the 
tuyeres  down,  but  there  should  never  be  less  than  2£  inches 
over  the  bottom  plate.  A  slight  down  grade  towards  the 
tapping-hole  is  necessary  to  run  all  the  iron  off,  but  avoid 
too  much  slope,  as  it  increases  the  pressure  at  the  tapping- 
hole,  making  it  more  difficult  to  insert  the  bott.  See 
CUPOLA;  SPOUT;  BREAST-HOLE;  BOTT. 

Sand-blast. — The  process  of  engraving,  cleaning, 
boring,  and  cutting  glass,  metals,  and  other  substances  by 
forcing  or  blowing  sand,  emery,  powdered  quartz,  granules 
of  iron,  etc.,  upon  the  surface  by  means  of  steam-pressure 
or  air-blast.  Corundum  1£.  inches  thick  has  been  pierced 
by  a  jet  issuing  at  300  pounds  pressure.  It  is  also  used  for 
cleaning  castings,  graining  of  zinc-plate,  cutting  letters  on 
stone  and  glass,  frosting  silverware,  and  many  other  simi- 
lar purposes. 


Sand-dusters.  369  Sandstone. 

Sand-dusters.  —  Flat,  round  vessels  of  block-tin, 
with  fine  perforations  on  one  of  the  flat  sides.  They  are 
used  largely  among  hardware  and  stove  founders  for  dust- 
ing the  joints  with  parting-sand,  instead  of  using  the  hand 
for  that  purpose.  See  PARTING;  PARTING-SAND. 

Sand-floor  is  that  part  of  the  foundry  floor  usually 
devoted  to  the  production  of  castings  in  green  sand,  many 
of  which  are  moulded  in  the  sand-floor  itself,  and  termed 
"sand-floor,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  dry-sand  and  loam- 
work  floors.  See  FLOOR-MOULDING;  BLACK  SAND. 

Sand-mould.  —  A  mould  constructed  in  the  sand, 
either  in  the  floor  or  contained  within  flasks.  In  this  in- 
stance it  may  be  either  a  dry-sand  or  green-sand  mould, 
the  term  "  sand-mould  "  simply  distinguishing  it  from  one 
constructed  by  the  processes  of  loam-moulding.  See  LOAM- 
MOULDING;  GREEN-SAND  MOULDING  ;  FLOOR-MOULDING; 
DRY-SAND  MOULDING. 

Sand  Odd-part.— See  MATCH-PART. 

Sand-pulverizer. — Any  machine  that  will  crush 
lumps  and  grind  the  particles  of  sand  together,  and  thus 
produce  a  thorough  blending  of  the  materials  employed  for 
producing  sand  and  loam  mixtures  in  the  foundry.  The 
ordinary  loam-mill  and  crusher  may  be  classed  as  such;  but 
for  the  purpose  of  mixing  and  sifting  the  finer  grades  of 
sand  there  are  other  excellent  contrivances,  with  which,  by 
means  of  a  grinding-plate  and  vertical  yielding  bed  set  in 
below  the  hopper,  the  sand  is  pulverized  and  mixed,  and 
finally  delivered  into  a  horizontal  revolving  screen  to  be 
sifted.  See  KOCK-CRUSHER;  LOAM-MILL;  SAND  SCREEN. 

Sandstone  is  a  rock  composed  of  siliceous  or  calcare- 
ous grains  of  sand  cemented  together  by  siliceous,  calcareous, 


Sand-washing.  370  Sand-screen. 

or  ferruginous  infiltrations,  though  the  loose  sand  solidi- 
fies by  pressure  alone.  The  sand  grains  are  invariably 
composed  of  quartz  with  a  slight  admixture  of  other  min- 
erals, which  gives  rise  to  the  variations  in  color.  Some  of 
these  sandstones,  owing  to  the  highly  refractory  nature  of 
their  composition,  are  occasionally  employed  as  hearths  of 
blast-furnaces,  also  for  the  beds  of  air-furnaces ;  but  the 
want  of  homogeneity  in  the  stone  makes  them  liable  to 
crack,  and  for  this  reason  other  refractory  materials  are 
generally  preferred.  See  ROCK-SAND;  FACING-SAND. 

Sand-washing. — The  process  of  washing  sand,  in 
order  to  free  it  from  deleterious  matter,  and  thus  render 
it  more  suitable  for  moulding  purposes,  may  be  materially 
facilitated  by  rotating  a  cylindrical  wire-sieve  within  a 
shallow  trough,  which  receives  a  constant  supply  of  water 
at  one  end  and  discharges  it  at  the  other,  along  with  the 
soluble  matter  which  has  passed  through  the  sieve.  See 
CORE-SAND.  • 

Sand-Screen.  —  The  ordinary  sand-screen  in  the 
foundry  is  similar  to  the  one  used  for  coal  and  for  the  sand 
used  by  builders,  etc.  The  regular  sizes  used  for  brickwork 
and  plastering  is  3-  or  4-mesh,  for  fine  sand  5 -mesh,  for 
gravel  2-mesh.  These  frames  measure  6  feet  high,  26 J 
inches  in  width.  The  sizes  most  used  are  J-inch  openings 
for  taking  out  the  dust;  f-inch  for  chestnut  coal;  \  to  J- 
inch  for  nut;  f  to  j-inch  for  stove;  -J,  1,  and  IJ-inch  for 
cleaning  soft  coal.  These  screens  are  made  with  a  heavy 
hard-wood  frame,  and  of  extra  heavy  crimped  wire.  The 
frame  is  securely  fastened  together  with  bolts,  and  the 
wires  are  firmly  stapled  to  the  frame,  and  finished  at  the  top 
and  bottom  with  sheet  iron.  The  revolving  screen  consists 
of  a  grating  of  wire  cloth  secured  to  a  framework  of  iron, 
forming  a  cylindrical  riddle  or  sieve,  into  which  the  sand 


Sand-sifters  371  Satin-spar. 

is  thrown  at  one  end.  A  slight  incline  causes  what  is  too 
large  to  run  through  the  meshes  to  pass  out  at  the  other  end 
as  the  cylinder  rotates  horizontally  on  its  axis. 

Sand  Sifters.  —  The  common  kinds  of  sand-sifters 
are  made  to  operate  by  either  hand  or  power,  and  usually 
consist  of  a  stout  oblong  frame  supported  on  four  legs,  in- 
side of  which  the  sieve  or  riddle  is  caused  to  move  rapidly 
back  and  forth  by  a  mechanical  device  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  frame.  Some  makers  claim  six  movements  of  the  sieve 
to  each  revolution  of  the  driving-wheel  or  pulley;  the  object 
in  this  being  to  prevent  clogging  by  imparting  a  constant 
jarring  motion  to  the  sifter.  Other  sifters  are  suspended 
from  beams  above,  and  an  oscillating  motion  imparted  to 
them  by  a  three-toothed  cam-pinion,  the  teeth  of  which 
thrust  (alternately) ;  pins  in  the  slotted  piece  attached  to 
the  bar  which  actuates  the  sifter,  and  a  rapid  back-and- 
forth  movement  is  imparted  thereto.  See  RIDDLE. 

Sapphire. — A  precious  stone,  almost  equal  to  the 
diamond  in  hardness.  It  is  highly  transparent  and  brilliant, 
and  consists  of  nearly  pure  alumina  or  clay,  with  a  minute 
portion  of  iron.  White  sapphire  resembles  the  diamond. 
Red  sapphire  is  called  the  oriental  ruby;  blue  being  the 
common  sapphire  of  the  ancients,  and  yellow  the  oriental 
topaz.  See  PRECIOUS  STORES. 

Sardonyx. — A  very  beautiful  and  rare  variety  of 
onyx,  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  sard  and  white  chal- 
cedony, used  by  the  ancients  for  cameo  engravings.  See 
PRECIOUS  STORES. 

Satin-Spar. — A  white  fibrous  limestone,  which  ex- 
hibits, when  polished,  a  lustre  like  satin.  It  is  found  in 
England  and  Scotland.  See  LIMESTONE. 


Saturation.  372  Scaffolding. 

Saturation. — A  liquid  is  said  to  be  saturated  when  it 
has  taken  up  as  large  a  quantity  of  a  solid  as  it  can  dissolve, 
in  which  case  the  force  of  cohesion  between  the  particles  of 
the  solid  is  equalled  by  the  adhesion  of  the  liquid  and  the 
solid  to  each  other.  Saturation  means  also  the  absorption 
of  liquids  by  solids,  the  permeation  of  an  element  by  other 
elements,  etc.  See  SOLUBILITY. 


Scabbed  Castings  are  castings  on  the  surface  of 
which  rough  and  unsightly  excrescences  are  found  when 
the  adhering  sand  has  been  removed.  These  imperfections 
arise  from  a  variety  of  causes  :  such  as  imperfect  venting; 
faults  in  the  ramming;  unsuitable  material;  too  much  coal; 
extreme  moisture,  and  numerous  other  causes,  all  of  which, 
in  the  great  majority  of  instances,  might  be  easily  avoided 
if  the  intelligence  of  those  engaged  in  their  production  was 
equal  to  the  demands  made  on  it.  The  moulders  of  to-day 
are  deficient  from  both  an  intellectual  and  artistic  point  of 
view,  and  no  substantial  improvement  in  the  quality  of 
castings  may  be  anticipated  until  a  more  rigorous  system 
of  apprenticeship  and  superior  technical  training  shall  have 
been  adopted.  This  and  this  only  will  amplify  the  minds 
of  our  young  men  and  enable  them  to  intelligently  trace 
cause  and  effect,  and  thus  avoid  the  errors  which,  owing  to 
their  present  ignorance,  are  now  so  frequent.  See  TECH- 
NICAL EDUCATION  FOR  THE  MOULDER;  FACING-SAND; 
VENTING;  BAMMING;  CUTTING;  CURRENT. 

Scaffold.— See  CHARGING-PLATFORM. 

Scaffolding  is  the  formation  of  highly  refractory 
masses  of  scoria  and  iron  upon  the  cupola  or  blast-furnace 
walls,  which  interfere  to  a  remarkable  extent  with  their 
free  working.  These  obstructions  may  be  caused  by  the 


Scaling-furnace.  373  Scotch  Pig  Iron. 

accumulation  of -refractory  slag;  from  the  use  of  soft  fuel 
that  is  crushed  by  the  superincumbent  charges;  uneven 
distribution  of  the  charges;  inferior  fuel;  too  heavy  bur- 
dens ;  etc.  Most  of  the  conditions  enumerated  act  by 
obstructing  the  blast,  and  thus  interfering  with  a  free 
ascent  of  the  gases ;  the  furnace  loses  heat,  and  the  slag 
coagulates  and  favors  the  formation  of  scaffolds.  In  the 
ordinary  cupola  a  scaffold  may  be  removed  by  the  intro- 
duction of  finely  divided  fuel  at  the  tuyeres,  which  are  di- 
rectly underneath  the  offending  mass,  reducing  the  blast 
somewhat  until  the  obstruction  begins  to  yield ;  and  it  is 
sometimes  possible  to  loosen  them  off  by  means  of  a  long 
bar  from  the  charging-hole ;  but  in  the  case  of  blast-fur- 
naces more  drastic  measures  must'  be  employed.  See 
CHARGING  ;  KATIO  OF  FUEL  TO  IRON  ;  SALAMANDER. 

Scaling-furnace,  as  its  name  implies,  is  the  fur- 
nace in  which  plates  have  the  scales  removed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat. 

Scoria. — The  cinder  and  slag  rejected  after  the  reduc- 
tion of  metallic  ores,  or  the  superfluous  matter  of  metals  in 
fusion.  See  SLAG. 

Scotch  Pig  Iron  is  a  brand  of  iron  that  in  the  past 
has.  been  highly  esteemed  by  founders  almost  everywhere 
for  its  softness  and  fluidity,  as  well  as  for  the  particular 
quality  of  retaining  its  heat  when  melted  for  a  much 
longer  time  than  most  other  irons.  This  remarkable  iron 
is  made  from  ores  and  coal  eminently  adapted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  No.  1  irons.  The  particular  quality  of  fluidity 
which  it  possesses  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  phosphorus;  but  many  of  these  brands  are  high 
in  both  manganese  and  combined  carbon,  which  renders 
their  use  for  strong  castings  that  have  to  be  tooled  very 


Scrap  metal. 


374 


Screw-jack. 


undesirable.  When  these  irons  have  been  low  in  the  latter- 
mentioned  elements  and  correspondingly  high  in  silicon 
and  graphitic  carbon,  they  have  been  unquestionably  suc- 
cessful as  softeners;  but  the  following  comparison  of  a 
cheap  No.  2  American  with  a  high-grade  Scotch  iron  will 
show  that  our  domestic  brands  are  far  superior  as  softeners 
— a  fact  that  is  becoming  more  widely  known  by  foundrv- 
men,  as  the  decreased  imports  testify.  This  shows  the 


Silicon. 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Manga- 
nese. 

Sulphur. 

Graphite. 

Com. 
Carbon. 

American  No.  2. 

3.81 

.49 

.15 

.04 

3.26 

.04 

Scotch  No.  1. 

1.70 

1.10 

1.83 

.01 

3.50 

.40 

softening  element,  silicon,  to  be  much  higher  in  the  Ameri- 
can brand — while  phosphorus,  manganese,  and  combined 
carbon,  all  hardening,  are  almost  absent  by  comparison 
with  the  Scotch.  See  SOFTENERS;  SILICON. 

Scrap-metal. — Fragments  of  cast-metal  to  be  re- 
melted,  or  of  malleable  iron.  The  latter,  when  reworked 
in  the  forge  by  piling,  heating,  and  rolling,  is  sometimes 
converted  into  the  strongest  iron  by  reason  of  the  twisted 
fibre  imparted  to  the  forgings.  Cast-iron  scrap  of  good 
quality  forms  a  good  corrective  in  all  mixtures  when  the 
resultant  casting  made  from  the  pig  iron  in  stock  would 
be  too  soft  and  graphitic.  See  MIXING  CAST  IRON;  BUGS; 
SILICON;  SOFTENERS. 

Screen. — See  SAND-SCREEN. 

Screw-jack,  or  jack-screw,  is  a  lifting-machine  in 
which  the  power  consists  of  a  strong  screw,  which  is  made 
to  rotate  by  means  of  a  large  nut  which  rests  upon  a  base 
or  pedestal.  It  is  raised  or  lowered  by  turning  the  nut. 


Screw-moulding.  375  Screw  Propellers. 

Screw-moulding. — Cast-iron  screws  for  conveyors 
and  elevators  are  made  in  green  sand  by  screwing  a  section 
of  screw  through  the  entire  flask ;  first  bedding  the  shaft 
with  section  attached  in  the  lower  flask,  making  joint  half- 
way and  ramming  thereon  the  cope,  which,  when  the  pat- 
tern has  been  screwed  out  endwise,  may  if  necessary  be 
separated  for  finishing. 

Screw-plates.— See  KAPPING-PLATE. 

Screw  Propellers. — A  screw  propeller  i«  a  similar 
construction  to  the  common  screw,  except  that  the  thread 
enlarges  to  a  plate  as  the  cylinder  diminishes  to  a  spindle. 
It  acts  much  as  a  bolt  in  a  fixed  nut.  When  placed  under 
the  ship  and  revolved,  the  screw  advances,  pushing  the 
ship,  and  the  water  is  thrust  backwards.  John  Stevens,  of 
Hoboken,  employed  a  screw  propeller  in  1804.  In  1836 
patents  were  granted  to  Capt.  J.  Ericsson,  United  States  of 
America,  and  Francis  P.  Smith,  England,  which  resulted  in 
their  final  adoption  as  a  regular  mode  of  propulsion  for 
steamships.  Propellers  are  cast  from  bronze,  steel,  and  cast 
iron — some  whole  and  others  with  boss  and  blades  as  sep- 
arate castings.  The  latter  may  very  readily  be  all  made  in 
greensand.  Large  numbers  of  small  wheels  are  made  from 
entire  patterns  in  greensaud.  An  improved  method  of 
moulding  small  wheels  in  greensand  from  one  blade  and 
an  equal  section  of  hub  secured  to  a  nowel-frame  of  wood, 
cut  to  the  shape  of  the  joint,  allows  of  the  pattern  being 
rammed  therein,  the  joint  made,  and  an  impression  of  the 
upper  side  being  taken  in  a  close-fitting  cope,  also  of  wood. 
This  whole  process,  being  performed  upon  a  lifting-plate 
that  stands  within  the  nowel-frame,  permits  the  blade- 
moulds  when  placed  together  to  be  arranged  in  their  respec- 
tive positions  upon  a  level  bed,  and  all  rammed  with  a 
containing  flask  or  curb.  The  covering-plate,  weights,  and 


Scruple.  376  Sculpture 

runners  complete  the  operation.  Larger  wheels  are  made 
in  dry-sand  from  one-blade  pattern  with  hub  attached,  the 
latter  being  made  to  fit  a  central  spindle  that  rests  on  a 
foundation-plate  on  which  as  many  nowels  are  fixed  as 
there  are  blades  to  the  wheel.  The  copes,  being  separate 
ones,  are  rammed  in  succession  over  the  pattern,  as  the 
lower  surface  of  the  blades  are  alternately  formed  in  each 
nowel.  When  all  the  blades  have  been  moulded  by  this 
means,  the  whole  mould  is  finished,  blackened,  and  dried 
for  casting.  When  small  and  medium-sized  wheels  are 
made  in  loam,  the  whole  of  the  blades  are  formed  upon 
one  foundation-plate  ;  very  large  ones  have  a  separate 
foundation-plate  for  each  blade.  An  outer  swept-bearing, 
just  beyond  the  brickwork  of  the  blades,  serves  as  a  rest  for 
the  inclined  plane  on  which  the  sweep-board,  attached  to 
the  free  arms  of  the  spindle,  must  be  made  to  travel,  and 
which  gives  the  pitch  of  the  wheel.  Bottom  and  top  sur- 
faces of  the  blade  are  struck  with  this  board,  which  is  set 
at  right  angles  with  the  spindle,  a  tapered  thickness  or 
guide-piece  being  attached  when  the  blades  are  made  face 
up.  If  the  blades  are  to  be  cast  face  up,  the  moulds  are 
carved  out  of  the  loam;  if  face  down,  then  some  pattern 
device  is  schemed,  in  order  to  give  the  cope  impression. 
The  piers  or  nowels  are  built  of  bricks  and  loam;  but  the 
copes  are  carried  off  in  iron  frames,  so  constructed  that  a 
good  loam  impression  of  the  blade  along  with  that  portion 
of  the  hub  may  be  lifted  away,  to  be  again  returned  when 
the  whole  mould  has  been  dried,  and  all  is  ready  for  bind- 
ing and  ramming  together  in  the  pit. 

Scruple. — The  scruple  is  the  288th  of  a  troy  pound  ; 
the  24th  of  an  ounce ;  the  third  part  of  a  drachm,  and 
contains  20  troy  grains. 

Sculpture  is  an  art  in  which,  by  means  of  taking  away 


Sealing-wax  Impressions.  377  Sea-water. 

or  adding  to  matter,  all  sorts  of  figures  are  formed  either 
in  clay,  wood,  wax,  stone,  or  metal.  The  art  of  sculpture, 
in  its  most  extensive  sense,  comprehends  not  only  carving 
in  wood,  stone,  or  marble,  but  all  enchasing,  engraving  in 
all  its  kinds  and  casting  in  bronze,  lead,  wax,  plaster,  as 
well  as  modelling  in  clay,  wax,  or  stucco.  See  STATUARY- 
FOUNDIKG;  PLASTER  CAST;  MODELLING;  STUCCO. 

Sealing-wax  Impressions.  —  Sealing-wax  is  a 
very  handy  and  useful  substance  for  obtaining  any  particu- 
lar impression  to  be  afterwards  inclosed  within  or  attached 
to  a  pattern  for  moulding  in  sand.  The  wax  must  be  of 
good  quality  and  melted  in  a  metal  vessel  over  a  lamp, 
after  which  the  pattern  can  be  pressed  down  upon  the  wax 
just  before  it  congeals,  and  a  beautiful  impression  will 
result  if  the  pattern  is  thoroughly  clean.  Sealing-wax  im- 
pressions make  good  moulds  for  plaster. 

Sea-coal  Facing.— See  COAL-DUST. 

Sea-water  is  water  impregnated  with  salt  in  solution. 
It  is  generally  composed  of  chloride  of  sodium  2.50,  chloride 
of  magnesium  0.35,  sulphate  of  magnesia  0.58,  carbonate  of 
lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia  0.02,  sulphate  of  lime  0.01, 
water  96.54. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  why  sea- water  is  utterly 
unfit  for  foundry  purposes,  as,  in  the  subsequent  process  of 
evaporation,  the  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt  is  de- 
posited in  innumerable  crystals  among  the  sand;  and  this 
deposit  being  volatile  at  furnace  heat  must  flow  as  a  slag 
immediately  it  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  molten  metal. 
This  explains  why,  where  sea-water  is  employed,  castings 
invariably  show  dull  gray  deposits  on  the  surface,  which 
utterly  destroy  all  beauty  of  finish,  and  render  them 
unfit  for  any  but  the  commonest  purposes.  The  slag  pro- 


Seating.  378  Separating-machine. 

duced  is  also  a  source  of  annoyance  when  the  castings  must 
be  tooled.    See  SALT;  DAUBING. 

Seating. — A  guide-bearing  or  rest  for  cores  or  mould 
sections.  In  vertical  loam-work  the  cope  or  the  core,  and 
sometimes  both,  are  made  as  separate  portions  of  the  mould, 
and  must  be  lowered  into  their  respective  positions  when 
the  mould  is  closed  together  in  the  pit.  In  order  that  this 
may  be  done  accurately,  a  tapered  seating  is  formed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mould,  extending  some  few  inches  below  the 
casting.  By  this  device  the  smallest  end  of  the  core  is 
made  to  enter  at  the  widest  diameter  of  the  seating,  and  is 
thus  guided  to  the  bottom-bearing,  when  the  sides  meet 
close  together  at  a  true  centre.  The  cope  is  the  opposite 
to  this,  its  widest  diameter  seeking  a  true  location  by  in- 
closing the  small  end  of  the  seating  first,  and  gradually  em- 
bracing it  closer  and  closer  until  the  bottom-bearing  is 
reached,  when  the  diameters  correspond  and  the  section  is 
central.  The  tapered  sides  of  an  ordinary  core-print  rep- 
resent the  seating  for  a  core.  See  COPE-KING;  PRINT; 
GUIDE. 

Semilor. — A  cheap  imitation  of  gold,  used  for  common 
articles  of  jewelry.  The  composition  varies  from  2  to  5 
copper,  and  1  zinc.  See  GOLD;  TOMBAC 

Semi-steel. — See  PUDDLED  STEEL. 

Separating-machine  (WoodrufPs)  is  an  in- 
genious combination  of  vibrating  screen  and  fan  for  extract- 
ing shot  and  other  small  iron  from  foundry  refuse.  It 
occupies  ground  space  about  four  by  eight  feet;  requires 
about  one  and  a  half  to  two  horse-power  to  drive  it;  can 
be  set  up  anywhere,  in  doors  or  out,  under  shed,  where 
power  can  be  had. 


Separating  Metals.  379  Separating  Metals. 

A  barrowful  of  refuse  will  pass  through  the  separator  in 
three  or  four  minutes,  all  the  iron  being  deposited  in  box 
provided  for  it,  and  all  other  materials  thrown  to  rear  of 
machine. 

Separating  Metals  from  their  Alloys.— Tin 

may  be  separated  from  copper  by  digesting  in  nitric  acid, 
which  dissolves  the  copper — the  tin  remaining  in  an  in- 
soluble peroxide. 

Copper  is  separated  from  lead  by  adding  sulphuric  acid 
to  the  nitric  solution  and  evaporating  to  dryness,  when  water 
digested  on  the  residuum  will  dissolve  out  the  sulphate  of 
copper,  leaving  the  sulphate  of  lead  behind.  From  this 
solution  the  oxide  of  copper  may  be  precipitated  by  pure 
potassa.  The  precipitation  of  copper  in  the  metallic  state 
is  obtained  by  immersing  polished  steel  into  the  solution. 

Copper  is  separated  from  zinc  by  sulpuretted  hydrogen, 
which  will  throw  down  a  sulphuret  of  copper,  which  may 
be  dissolved  in  nitric  acid  and  precipitated  as  before. 

Silver  is  separated  from  copper  by  first  reducing  the  alloy 
to  powder,  and  then  digesting  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
zinc,  which  dissolves  the  copper,  leaving  the  silver  un- 
changed. Or,  mix  sulphuric  acid  1  part,  nitric  acid  1  part, 
water  1  part;  boil  the  metal  in  the  mixture  till  it  is  dis- 
solved, and  add  a  little  salt,  which  will  cause  the  silver  to 
subside. 

Copper  is  separated  from  its  numerous  alloys — as  lead, 
tin,  antimony,  iron,  bismuth,  etc. — by  melting  the  alloy, 
and  fusing  for  about  an  hour  with  one  part  each  of  black 
oxide  (copper  scales)  and  bottle-glass  to  every  ten  parts  of  the 
alloy.  The  copper  will  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible; 
the  other  metals  and  impurities  either  volatilize  or  dissolve 
in  the  flux. 

If  lead  and  tin  are  in  solution,  the  lead  may  be  precipi- 
tated by  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  tin  with  sulphuretted 


Setting.  380  -Shackle. 

hydrogen  gas.  In  an  alloy  the  lead  will  dissolve  in  nitric 
acid,  leaving  the  tin  as  an  oxide. 

Zinc  and  iron  may  be  removed  from  plumbers  solder  by 
digesting  the  grain  metal  in  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  The 
acid  first  dissolves  the  zinc,  then  the  iron,  and  all  traces  of 
these  metals  are  removed  by  subsequent  washing. 

Tin  may  be  separated  from  Britannia  and  similar  alloys 
by  melting  the  metal  and  sprinkling  sulphur  over  it;  after 
which  stir  the  metal  in  the  crucible  for  a  while,  and  the 
other  metals  will  burn  out,  leaving  the  tin  pure. 

Gold  is  separated  from  silver  by  melting  the  alloy  and 
pouring  from  a  height  into  a  rotating  vessel  containing  cold 
water.  This  granulates  the  alloy,  which  is  then  treated  with 
nitric  acid  and  heated.  The  product  is  nitrate  of  silver, 
which  is  reduced  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  metallic  gold 
as  a  black  mud,  which  is  washed  and  remelted. 

Setting. — This  term  is  applied  to  metal  as  it  passes 
from  the  fluid  to  the  solid  state.  When  the  metal  has 
concreted  into  a  solid  mass,  it  is  termed  "set"  or  "frozen," 
both  of  which  terms  are  in  the  foundry  synonyms  for 
congelation.  See  CONGELATION;  FREEZING. 

Shackle. — A  link  with  an  open  end,  the  extremities  of 
which  are  forged  to  receive  a  pin  or  bolt,  by  which  means 
a  connection  may  be  made  with  a  chain;  or  it  may  be  em- 
ployed to  join  two  chains  together.  Some  are  made  link- 
form,  and  others  are  made  like  a  ring.  Their  chief  use  in 
the  foundry  is  to  handle  heavy  cores  and  flasks,  for  which 
reason  the  eyes  should  be  always  made  large  in  order  that 
strong  pins  or  bolts  may  be  inserted.  If  pins  are  used, 
one  end  should  be  jumped  and  the  other  keyed,  to  prevent 
slipping  out.  The  nut  answers  this  purpose  when  a  bolt  is 
used. 


Shakdo.  381  Shears. 

Shakdo  is  a  Japanese  bronze  of  great  beauty,  the 
composition  of  which  consists  of  copper  containing  from 
one  to  ten  per  cent  of  gold.  Its  bluish-black  color  is  pre- 
served by  boiling  the  polished  article  in  an  artificial  bronze 
solution  composed  of  sulphate  of  copper,  alum,  and  verdi- 
gris. See  BRONZE. 

Shale  is  a  hard,  slaty  clay  composed  chiefly  of  silica 
and  alumina,  but  in  some  instances  containing  lime  and 
oxide  of  iron.  It  forms  in  the  coal-measures  and  often 
contains  a  quantity  of  bitumen:  it  is  then  known  as 
bituminous  shale,  from  which  variety  shale-oil  is  obtained 
by  distillation.  Shale  has  a  slaty  structure,  generally 
grayish  black  in  color,  but  red  when  iron  is  present.  Slate- 
pencils  are  made  from  it,  and  when  free  from  iron  and 
lime  it  is  ground  up  and  used  for  making  fire-bricks.  See 
BITUMEN. 

Shank. — A  foundry-ladle  for  holding  molten  metal. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  hand  and  crane  ladles  by  its 
mountings,  which  consist  of  an  encircling  wrought  iron 
belt,  to  which  is  welded  the  single  and  double  ends  for 
carrying  it  away  by  hand.  Shanks  are  made  of  both  cast 
and  wrought  iron  (the  latter  to  be  always  preferred), 
and  their  capacity  ranges  from  100  to  400  pounds.  Small 
shanks  arc  managed  by  two  men,  the  larger  ones  requiring 
from  three  to  five  men,  according  to  the  weight  of  metal 
carried  away.  They  are  sometimes  made  to  hold  a  ton 
or  more,  but  are  then  lifted  in  a  bale  by  means  of  the 
crane,  and  these  are  neither  as  safe  nor  as  handy  as  when 
suitable  gearing  is  attached.  See  LADLE  ;  HAND-LADLE  ; 

C  BANE-LADLE. 

Shears. — A  machine  used  in  forges  and  rolling-mills 
for  cutting  up  puddle-bars  into  suitable  lengths  for  piling, 


Shear-steel.  382  Sheathing-metal. 

trimming  the  edges  of  sheets,  plates,  etc.  Crocodile  or 
alligator  shears  are  generally  some  form  of  lever-shears 
consisting  of  a  fixed  bottom  jaw  or  knife,  to  which  at  the 
root  of  the  knife  is  attached  the  vibrating-arm  or  lever- 
jaw.  A  crank  or  excentric  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
lever  causes  the  upper  jaw  to  open  and  shut  after  the 
manner  of  an  alligator's  mouth;  hence  the  name.  The 
plate  -  shearing  machine  is  made  with  diagonal -edged 
knives  of  considerable  length;  the  bottom  one  is  fixed,  and 
the  upper  has  a  vertical  motion  within  parallel  guides. 
These  are  employed  for  sheet  and  plate  work.  Guillotine- 
shears  are  similar  in  design  to  plate-shears;  but,  as  their 
use  is  for  cutting  up  the  hot  steel  ingots  into  lengths  suit- 
able for  subsequent  operations  in  the  mill,  the  knives  are 
much  shorter  and  the  guides  closer  together,  giving  the 
machine  an  appearance  of  the  instrument  from  which  it 
derives  its  name.  There  are  also  numerous  designs  of 
combined  shear  and  punch,  both  of  which  motions  are 
derived  from  gear  connection  with  the  fly-wheel.  Hydraulic 
shears  may  be  of  two  forms :  the  stroke  is  either  upward  or 
downward,  according  to  the  position  of  the  press. 

Shear-steel.  —  Shear-steel  of  commerce  is  classified 
as  double  and  single  shear  steel.  Owing  to  the  imperfec- 
tions of  blister- steel,  it  is  not  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  cutting  instrument,  as  shears,  knives,  etc.,  until  it  has 
undergone  the  processes  of  cutting,  piling,  reheating,  and 
welding  together  again  under  the  hammer  or  by  rolling. 
The  resultant  bar  is  shear-steel;  this,  when  cut  up  or 
doubled  upon  itself,  reheated,  and  again  hammered  or 
rolled,  is  double-shear  steel.  See  BLISTER-STEEL. 

Sheathing-metal  is  a  metal  or  alloy  which,  when 
rolled  into  sheets,  is  employed  for  covering  the  bottoms  of 
wooden  ships  to  protect  them  from  worms,  etc.  Muntz's 


Sheet  Iron.  383  Sheet  Lead. 

metal  for  this  purpose  is  copper  60,  zinc  40;  but  he  states 
that  any  proportions  between  the  extremes  of  copper  50, 
zinc  50,  and  copper  63,  zinc  37,  will  roll  and  work  at  a  red 
heat ;  but  copper  60,  zinc  40  is  always  to  be  preferred. 
The  cast  ingots  of  this  alloy  are  heated  to  about  200° 
and  rolled  into  sheets,  the  same  heat  serving  for  work- 
ing this  alloy  into  other  shapes,  as  bolts,  etc.  Numer- 
ous other  alloys  are  employed  for  this  purpose,  amongst 
which  may  be  noticed:  Mushet's — copper  100,  zinc  -J;  Col- 
lins's  red  sheathing-metal — copper  8,  zinc  1;  Collinses  white 
metal — copper  1,  zinc  16,  tin  16;  Pope's — lead  1,  zinc  3, 
tin  2;  all  of  which  may  be  heated  and  worked  as  previously 
described.  The  nails  used  for  fastening  the  sheathing  are 
composed  of  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  See  BKASS. 

Sheet  Iron  is  rolled  from  the  bloom  direct,  or  from 
slabs  and  piles.  It  is  brought  to  a  welding  heat  and  passed 
through  the  slabbing  or  roughing  rolls,  end  and  side  wise, 
according  as  it  appears  to  require  distention,  until  the 
mass  has  been  reduced  sufficiently  for  final  rolling  in  the 
finishing-rolls  where,  being  now  brought  by  the  previous 
operations  to  the  required  width,  it  is  passed  through 
entirely  in  the  direction  of  its  length.  Gauges  of  the 
length,  breadth,  and  width  indicate  when  to  discontinue 
rolling.  The  exact  size  is  obtained  by  means  of  plate- 
shears.  See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

Sheet  Lead.— One  method  of  making  sheet  lead  is  to 
puffer  the  melted  metal  to  run  out  of  a  box  or  vessel 
through  a  long  horizontal  slit,  upon  a  table  covered  with 
sand,  when  the  box  is  drawn  over  it,  leaving  the  melted  lead 
behind  to  congeal.  These  sheets  may  then  be  rolled  to 
any  desired  thickness,  and  also  made  more  uniform.  A 
later  improved  method  is  to  cast  thick  square  blocks  of 
Jead,  which  are  subsequently  drawn  into  long  sheets  be- 


Shell-gold.  384  Shingling. 

tweeu  two  heavy  rolls;  the  sheet  in  the  meanwhile  being 
supported  upon  a  long  table  which  travels  on  wooden 
rollers.  Another  method  is  to  force  the  metal  by  hydraulic 
power  through  the  annular  space  formed  by  an  outer  cylin- 
der and  central  core.  This  makes  lead-pipe,  which  may 
be  slit  lengthwise  and  opened  out  into  sheets.  The  Chinese 
pour  melted  lead  upon  a  paper-protected  flagstone,  and 
press  it  down  into  a  sheet  by  applying  another  similarly 
prepared  stone  above.  See  LEAD. 

Shell-gold.  —  The  thin  beaten  gold  used  by  decorators. 
See  GOLD. 

Shell-lac.—  A  resinous  exudation  from  the  branches  of 
several  trees  in  the  tropics.  The  crude  lac  is  called  stick- 
lac;  this  is  bruised,  the  fragments  of  wood  removed,  and 
the  resin  digested  in  weak  earbonate-of-soda  solution. 
The  residue  is  the  seed-lac  of  commerce,  which  when 
melted  down  becomes  shell-lac.  See 


Shell-moulding.—  See  HOLLOW  SHOT. 

Shells.  —  The  shells  of  oysters,  clams,  etc.,  and  of  the 
eggs  of  birds,  are  composed  almost  wholly  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  cemented  by  a  very  small  portion  of  animal  gluten; 
while  those  of  lobsters,  crabs,  etc.,  generally  consist  of  only 
half  carbonate  of  lime,  the  remainder  being  animal  matter 
with  a  small  proportion  of  phosphate.  See  CARBONATES  ; 
LIME 

Shingling.  —  The  process  of  detaching  impurities,  as 
cinder,  etc.,  from  the  blooms  of  puddled  iron  by  ham- 
mering or  compressing  the  ball,  and  thus  preparing  it  for 
immediate  conversion  into  bar  iron  by  rolling.  See  MAL- 
LEABLE IRON;  EOTARY  SQUEEZER. 


Short-run.  385  Shrinkage. 

Short-rim. — A  foundry  appellation  for  a  mould  or 
casting  which  has  been  spoiled  by  being  only  partially 
filled  with  molten  metal.  See  RUK-UP. 

* 

Shot. — See  HOLLOW  SHOT  ;  LEAD-SHOT  ;  PROJECTILES. 
Shot-metal. — See  LEAD-SHOT. 
Shot-tower. — See  LEAD-SHOT. 

Shovel. — An  instrument  consisting  of  a  flat  or  scooped 
blade  and  a  handle;  it  is  used  for  digging  and  throwing 
sand,  earth,  etc.  Moulders'  shovels  are  of  two  kinds — 
heavy  and  light,  the  former  for  digging,  the  latter  being 
specially  made  to  meet  the  requirements  of  stove-plate, 
bench,  and  other  light- work  moulding;  but  both  classes 
of  shovels  should  be  made  of  the  best  cast  steel,  and  well 
polished.  The  handsomer  and  better  the  tool,  the  greater 
will  be  the  care  exercised  to  preserve  it,  so  that  in  the 
end  the  best  is  the  cheapest.  Besides  this  fine  grade  for 
moulders,  there  are  plain  black  polished  ones  of  a  stronger 
make,  adapted  for  rough  use  on  the  gangway  and  scrap- 
piles,  which  answer  these  purposes  just  as  well  as  the 
best,  and  are  much  cheaper.  Special  shovels  and  scoops 
are  made  for  coal;  but  for  coke  handling,  especially  round 
the  cupola,  the  fork  is  to  be  always  preferred.  The  square- 
bladed  digging-tool  is  usually  termed  a  spade.  See  COKE- 
FORK. 

Shrinkage. — A  contraction  or  shrinking  of  materials 
into  a  less  compass  as  they  change  from  a  hot  to  a  cold 
state.  Some  hard  irons  shrink  or  contract  f  of  an  inch  in 
12  inches,  while  soft  irons  of  choice  grades  will  sometimes 
not  exceed  ^.  Medium  grades  of  good  quality  generally 
shrink  about  -f^  of  an  inch  in  12  inches  when  used  in  heavy 


Shrinkage.  386  Shrinkage. 

castings;  but  in  light  castings  the  same  brand  will  as  a 
rule  show  £  of  an  inch  in  12  inches.  Bronze  shrinks  about 
T\  of  an  inch  in  12  inches.  General  brass  work,  accord- 
ing to  mixture,  will  shrink  from  T3¥  to  i  of  an  inch  in  12 
inches.  Copper  shrinks  J^,  tin  about  J,  silver  £,  lead  f^, 
zinc  and  bismuth  each  -fa  of  an  inch  in  12  inches.  These 
can  only  be  approximate  measures  of  shrinkage;  the  exact 
amount  which  takes  place  in  any  particular  casting  must 
necessarily  be  determined  by  its  general  outline  and  bulk, 
and  to  some  extent  by  the  temperature  of  the  metal  used 
for  casting  with,  dull  metal  always  favoring  the  least  con- 
traction. //Very  little  if  any  shrinkage  would  seem  to  occur 
in  heavy  castings  of  limited  compass,  but  what  in  this  in- 
stance seems  to  be  lack  of  shrinkage  is  in  all  probability  to 
be  attributed  to  distention  of  the  mould  under  extreme 
pressure.  The  metal  remaining  fluid  a  longer  time  in  this 
class  of  moulds  than  is  ordinarily  the  case,  gives  ample 
opportunity  for  the  pressure  to  act  upon  the  mould  surfaces 
to  severely  try  them.  Bottoms  of  cylinders  and  pipes 
would  appear  to  shrink  more  than  the  tops ;  but  it  is  a 
mistake  to  say  they  do.  The  smaller  diameter  at  that  point 
is  because  the  material  of  which  the  core  is  composed  can- 
not effectively  resist  the  extra  pressure  to  which  the  lower 
portions  of  all  deep  moulds  are  subjected.  When  12  feet 
added  to  the  depth  will  make  a  difference  in  pressure  equal 
to  about  37  pounds  per  square  inch,  it  is  plain  that  unless 
extraordinary  measures  are  adopted  to  resist  this  added 
pressure,  cylinders  will  always  appear  to  shrink  more  at  the 
bottom  than  top.  The  commonly  accepted  theory  that 
castings  shrink  less  vertically  than  in  any  other  direction 
is  undoubtedly  wrong  also,  and  similar  reasons  may  be 
advanced  to  refute  this  as  in  the  case  above,  especially  when 
the  upper  flask  or  covering-plate  is  connected  with  a  system 
of  coring,  the  bottom  surfaces  of  which  extend  a  consider- 
able distance  down.  These  extra  strains,  if  not  resisted 


Shutter.  387  Silica. 

absolutely  both  at  the  top  and  bottom,  gives  an  increased 
length  to  the  casting,  which  in  many  instances  exceeds  the 
legitimate  shrinkage.  Gear-wheel  rims  shrink  less  when 
the  arms  and  hubs  are  cast  on  than  when  made  as  a 
separate  casting,  and  it  may  always  be  expected  that  the 
heaviest  wheels  will  shrink  the  least.  The  same  may  be 
said  in  reference  to  other  classes  of  castings,  which  are 
composed  of  cross-ribs  and  plates  internally;  these  will  in- 
variably shrink  less  than  open  castings,  such 


Shriiik-head.—  See  KISER  ;  FEEDING-HEAD 


Shutter.  —  The  cast  or  wrought  iron  plate 
suitably  prepared  with  a  loam  daubing  on  both  its  si 
is  set  before  the  flow-hole  inside  the  dam  for  the  purpose 
of  regulating  the  stream  issuing  from  thence.  A  lever  is 
usually  employed  to  control  it.  Smaller  shutters  are  em- 
ployed to  check  or  turn  the  stream  of  metal  issuing  from 
the  furnace  to  a  mould  direct.  When  the  metal  is  allowed 
to  collect  in  a  large  sand-basin  before  entering  the  mould, 
the  shutter  controls  the  stream.  See  DAMS. 

Siemens  -  Martin  -  Steel.  —  See  OPEN  -  HEARTH 
STEEL;  REGENERATIVE  FURNACE. 

Sieve.—  A  fine  riddle,  usually  made  from  brass  wire, 
and  used  for  mixing  and  separating  the  finer  grades  of 
sand,  etc.,  in  the  foundry.  See  RIDDLES. 

Silex.  —  A  generic  name  given  to  flint-stone,  pure 
quartz,  silica,  and  all  minerals  in  which  a  large  proportion 
of  silica  is  present.  See  SILICA. 

Silica.—  One  of  the  most  abundant  substances  found 
in  nature.  Silica  is  the  chief  component  of  a  number  of 


Silica  Bricks.  388  Silicon. 

precious  stones,  of  rock-crystals,  agates,  porphyry,  granite, 
flints,  sandstone,  and  sand.  When  perfectly  pure  it  is  a 
fine  powder,  very  hard,  and  will  wear  away  glass.  When 
mixed  with  water  it  does  not  adhere,  but  falls  to  the  bottom, 
leaving  the  water  clear.  It  fuses  in  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe,  and  may  be  drawn  into  threads  after  the  manner 
of  glass.  When  silica  is  mixed  with  alkalies  it  melts  at  a 
lower  temperature,  and  combines  with  them  to  form  glass. 
The  minerals,  feldspar,  mica,  hornblende,  serpentine,  etc., 
which  form  the  granitic  and  many  other  rocks  are  silicates 
of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths.  Glass  and  pottery  are 
compounds  of  silica  with  various  metallic  oxides.  See 
GRANITE. 

Silica  Bricks  are  made  by  incorporating  about  50 
pounds  of  lime-paste  with  a  ton  of  crushed  Dinas  rock 
from  the  Swansea  Valley.  This  rock  contains  about  97 
per  cent  of  silica,  and  the  bricks  produced  from  it  are 
employed  chiefly  for  the  roofs  and  all  exposed  parts  of  the 
open-hearth  steel-melting  furnaces,  and  other  similar  pur- 
poses where  the  operations  demand  the  most  intense  heat. 
See  OPEN-HEARTH  CAST  STEEL. 

Silicon. — This  substance  is  the  base  of  silex  or  silica, 
and  is  now  supposed  to  be  a  non-metallic  element.  More 
or  less  of  this  element  is  present  in  all  varieties  of  pig  iron, 
but  whether  in  chemical  combination  or  otherwise  it  has 
not  yet  been  satisfactorily  determined.  Silicon  acts  to 
change  the  combined  carbon  in  cast-iron  to  graphitic  car- 
bon. Describing  the  result  of  his  experiments  for  ascer- 
taining the  influence  of  silicon  upon  cast-iron,  W.  J.  Keep 
says:  "We  have  seen,  however,  that  a  white  iron  which  will 
invariably  give  porous  and  brittle  castings  can  be  made 
solid  and  strong  by  the  addition  of  silicon;  that  a  further 
addition  of  silicon  will  turn  the  iron  gray,  and  that  as  the 


Silicon  Bronze.  389  Silicon  Steel. 

grayness  increases  the  iron  will  grow  weaker ;  that  excessive 
silicon  will  again  lighten  the  grain  and  cause  a  hard  and 
brittle  as  well  as  a  very  weak  iron ;  that  the  only  softening 
and  shrinkage-lessening  influence  of  silicon  is  exerted  dur- 
ing the  time  when  graphite  is  being  produced,  and  that 
silicon  of  itself  is  not  a  softener,  or  a  lessener  of  shrinkage, 
but  through  its  influence  on  carbon,  and  only  during  a 
certain  stage,  it  does  produce  these  effects." 

To  produce  highly  siliceous  iron,  or  siliconeisen,  in  the 
blast-furnace  the  blast  requires  to  be  extremely  hot,  the 
furnace  driven  slowly,  and  the  charges,  while  containing 
much  silica,  must  be  highly  aluminous  and  not  markedly 
calcareous. 

When  20  per  cent  of  silicon  is  present  in  siliconeisen  the 
amount  of  carbon  in  the  alloy  is  very  low. 

To  prevent  honeycombing  in  soft  cast  steel  which  con- 
tains very  little  carbon,  an  alloy  containing  8  per  cent  sili- 
con, about  15  per  cent  manganese,  and  1.3  per  cent  carbon 
is  employed  extensively  in  some  steel  manufactories.  The 
presence  of  silicon  along  with  manganese  acts  to  diminish 
the  formation  of  honeycomb  in  steel  ingots.  See  HONEY- 
COMBING; SOFTENERS;  ANALYSIS. 

Silicon  Bronze. — See  TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE 
WIRE. 

Siliconeisen.— See  SILICON. 

Silicon  Steel. — This  steel  is  made  by  adding  some 
siliconeisen  or  specially  prepared  siliceous  pig  along  with 
the  ordinary  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-manganese  which  it  is 
customary  to  mix  with  the  molten  metal,  reducing  the 
latter  sufficient  to  admit  the  siliconeisen.  The  result  is  a 
steel  containing  from  0.2  to  0.3  per  cent  silicon,  which  is 
largely  employed  for  steel  castings. 


Silver.  390  Silver  Alloys. 

Silver. — This  metal  is  found  native  and  in  combina- 
tion with  sulphur,  as  the  sulphides  of  lead,  antimony,  and 
copper;  native  silver  occurs  in  fibrous  or  crystalline  masses. 
The  metal  is  obtained  from  the  sulphuret  by  mixing  the 
crushed  ore  with  salt  and  roasting  it,  by  which  means  it  is 
converted  into  a  chloride  which,  together  with  water,  iron 
scraps,  and  mercury,  is  revolved  in  a  large  barrel.  By  this 
process  the  chlorine  is  removed  by  the  iron  and  the  mer- 
cury amalgamates  with  the  silver,  from  which  it  is  subse- 
quently freed  by  distillation.  Silver  is  freed  from  lead  by 
melting  the  alloy  and  cooling  slowly;  the  lead  then  solidi- 
fies in  crystals,  leaving  the  almost  pure  silver.  The  process 
of  cupellation  in  shallow  porous  vessels  made  from  bone- 
ashes  gives  a  still  greater  degree  of  refining.  Being  melted 
with  access  of  air,  the  lead  oxidizes;  the  oxide  or  litharge 
melts,  and,  being  absorbed  by  the  cupel,  the  silver  is  left 
pure.  Silver  is  the  whitest  of  all  metals,  of  high  metallic 
lustre,  is  very  ductile  and  tenacious,  may  be  hammered  to 
the  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  one  grain  may  be 
drawn  into  four  hundred  feet  of  wire.  Polished,  it  is  an 
excellent  reflector  of  light,  and  it  is  a  good  conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity.  To  give  silver  the  requisite  hardness 
for  coin  and  silver-plate,  it  is  usually  alloyed  with  about 
one  tenth  of  its  weight  of  copper.  The  specific  gravity  of 
silver  is  10.5,  and  it  is  harder  than  gold,  but  softer  than 
copper.  See  AMALGAMATION  ;  MERCURY  METALS. 

Silver  Alloys. — For  silver-plate  and  medals — silver 
05,  copper  5.  Silver  solder  for  jewellers — silver  19  dwts., 
copper  1  dwt.,  brass  10  dwts.  A  hard  silver  solder  is  com- 
posed of  silver  6,  brass  2;  the  one  most  common,  and  which 
is  softer  than  the  last,  has  silver  4,  brass  2.  See  IMITATION 
SILVER;  MOCK  SILVER;  GERMAN-SILVER;  BRASS. 

Silver  Imitations.— See  IMITATION  SILVER. 


Silvering.  391  Silvering. 

Silvering. — A  silver-plating  solution  is  made  and 
applied  as  follows :  Put  together  in  a  glass  vessel  1 
oz.  nitrate  of  silver,  2  oz.  cyanuret  potassa,  4  oz.  pre- 
pared Spanish  whiting,  and  10  oz.  pure  rain-water. 
Cleanse  the  article  to  be  plated  by  washing  over  with 
dilute  nitric  acid  or  potash-lye  and  prepared  chalk,  and 
apply  with  a  soft  brush.  Finish  with  the  chamois-skin  or 
burnisher. 

Silvering  with  the  Plating  Powder. — Dissolve  silver  in 
nitric  acid  by  the  aid  of  heat;  place  some  pieces  of  polished 
copper  in  the  solution  to  precipitate  the  silver;  wash  the 
acid  out  in  the  usual  way;  then,  with  15  grains  of  it  mix  2 
drachms  of  tartar,  2  drachms  of  table-salt,  and  \  drachm  of 
pulverized  alum.  Brighten  the  article  to  be  plated  with  ley 
and  prepared  caalk,  and  rub  on  the  mixture.  When  it  has 
assumed  a  whito  appearance  expose  to  heat,  and  then  polish 
with  the  chamois  or  burnisher.  Good  for  clock-dials  and 
barometer  scales. 

Silvering  Metals,  cold. — Mix  1  part  of  chloride  of  silver 
with  3  parts  of  pearl-ash,  1£  parts  common  salt,  and  1  part 
whiting.  The  article  to  be  well  cleaned,  as  before  directed, 
and  the  mixture  rubbed  well  on  with  a  piece  of  cork 
moistened  with  water.  When  silvered  wash  the  article  in 
hot  water,  slightly  alkalized;  then  wipe  dry. 

Silvering  by  Heat. — Dissolve  1  oz.  silver  in  nitric  acid ;  add 
a  small  quantity  of  salt;  then  wash  it  and  add  salammoniac, 
or  6  ozs.  of  salt  and  white  vitriol;  also  i  oz.  of  corrosive 
sublimate;  rub  them  together  till  they  form  a  paste;  rub 
the  piece  which  is  to  be  silvered  with  the  paste;  heat  it  till 
the  silver  runs,  after  which,  dip  it  in  weak  vitriol  pickle  to 
clean  it. 

Silvering  Solution  for  Electro-plates. — Nitrate  of  silver 
2  drachms,  distilled  water  37  drachms.  Dissolve,  and  add 
salammoniac  1  drachm,  hydrophosphite  of  soda  4  drachms, 
precipitated  chalk  4  drachms.  Agitate  the  preparation 


Silver  Powder.  392  Sinking-head. 

occasionally  for  12  hours,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 
Apply  with  a  fine  sponge. 

Silvering  Mirrors. — Silver,  instead  of  mercury,  is  now 
much  used  for  this  purpose.  The  deposition  is  effected  by 
pouring  over  the  glass  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  nitrate  of  silver, 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  ammonia,  to  which  has  been 
added  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  cloves.  A  gentle  heat  is  applied 
for  two  or  three  hours,  when  the  surface  becomes  coated. 
The  residue  is  poured  off,  the  film  of  silver  dried  and  var- 
nisl.eJ. 

Silvering  Shells. — Silver-leaf  and  gum- water,  a  sufficient 
quantity;  grind  to  a  proper  consistency,  and  cover  the  inside 
of  the  shells.  For  gold  use  the  gold-leaf  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 

Silvering  Glass  Globes. — Lead  1  part,  tin  1  part,  bismuth 
1  part ;  melt,  and  just  before  it  sets  add  mercury  10  parts. 
Pour  this  into  the  globe  and  revolve  rapidly.  See  PLATING  ; 
MERCURY. 

Silver  Lead. — See  GRAPHITE;  BLACK  LEAD;  FACING. 
Silver-plating. —PLATING ;  SILVERING. 

Silver  Powder. — Melt  one  part  each  of  tin  and  bis- 
muth; then  add  one  part  mercury,  just  before  it  sets.  When 
cold  this  is  powdered  and  used  by  japanners. 

Silver  Solder. — See  SILVER  ALLOYS;  SOLDERS. 

Silver  Steel. — Extra  fine  steel  for  the  keenest  cut- 
ting instruments.  Some  makers  alloys  this  with  an  exceed- 
ingly small  proportion  of  silver. 

Similor. — Gold-colored  brass.    See  SEMILOR. 
Sinking-head. — So  called  because  the  molten  metal 


Sister  Chains.  393  Skeleton. 

falls  or  sinks  out  of  it  into  the  shrinking  casting  below. 
See  FEEDING-HEAD;  KISEK. 

Sister  ChaiiiS.-Two  distinct  pairs  of  foundry  lifting- 
chains,  having  similar  parts  throughout,  each  one  of  which 
is  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  other — as,  "  sister  buckle 
chains,"  sister  sling  chains,"  etc. 

Size. — A  kind  of  soft  glue  made  from  skins,  hoofs, 
membranous  tissues,  and  other  parts  of  animals,  by  boiling 
for  some  hours,  then  dissolving,  straining,  and  again  boiling 
to  a  jelly-like  consistence. 

Gilder's  Gold  Size. — Boiled  linseed-oil  thickened  with 
yellow  or  calcined  red  ochre,  ground  smooth  and  thinned 
with  oil  of  turpentine. 

Letters  on  Glass. — A  size  for  this  purpose  is  copal  varnish 
one  part,  Canada  balsam  two  parts.  Another :  pure  mastic 
varnish,  or  pale,  quick-drying  copal  varnish. 

Artist's  Size. — Dissolve  over  the  fire  in  a  pint  of  water 
4  ounces  of  Flanders  glue,  4  ounces  of  white  soap;  then 
add  2  ounces  powdered  alum.  Stir  the  whole  and  leave  to 
cool. 

Size  to  fasten  Rubier  to  Wood  or  Metal. — Soak  pulverized 
gum-shellac  in  ten  times  its  weight  of  ammonia;  in  three 
or  four  days  a  shiny  mass  is  obtained,  which  will  become 
liquid  without  the  use  of  hot  water.  This  softens  the  rub- 
ber, and  becomes,  after  the  volatilization  of  the  ammonia, 
hard  and  impermeable  to  gases  and  fluids  whenever  it  is 
used  on  rubber  connected  to  the  wood  or  the  metal  of 
steam  or  other  apparatus. 

Skeleton. — A  frame  made  by  the  pattern-maker 
from  which,  by  the  aid  of  outside  and  inside  strickles,  the 
loam-moulder  constructs  his  mould  without  employing  a 


Skeleton  Core-iro'n.  394  Skim-gate 

full  pattern.  A  convenient  and  cheap  device  for  the  pro- 
duction of  tanks,  condensers,  etc.,  that  are  rectangular  in 
form.  Also,  for  moulding  cylindrical  objects,  as  steam- 
cylinders,  etc.,  in  loam.  A  skeleton-frame  for  this  purpose 
consists  of  bottom  and  top  flanges,  in  the  rough,  connected 
by  a  few  lags  vertically,  which  serve  to  fasten  thereon 
steam-chest,  feet,  exhaust-belt,  brackets,  etc.,  at  once,  and 
thus  obviate  all  possibility  of  the  errors  which  frequently 
occur  when  these  attachments  are  built  separately  into  the 
brickwork.  The  skeleton-flange  rests  on  the  swept  seating 
or  guide-bearing.  After  the  cope  has  been  built  to  a  tem- 
plate the  screws  are  taken  out  from  the  inside,  skeleton- 
frame  taken  away,  and  the  loam  swept  on  the  surface  .by 
means  of  the  spindle  and  sweep-board.  See  LOAM-MOULD- 
ING; SEATING. 

Skeleton  Core-iron. — A  core-iron  consisting  of 
wrought  or  cast  iron  rods  cast  in  one  or  more  plates  or 
rings.  It  is  the  most  efficient  and  convenient  core-iron 
that  can  be  made  for  any  description  of  belt  or  jacket- 
core  having  metal  on  all  its  sides.  Owing  to  their  cage- 
like  appearance,  they  are  frequently  termed  cage-irons.  See 
JACKET-CORES. 

Skim-gate  is  any  arrangement  of  runner  that  will 
arrest  the  skim  or  slag  at  some  part  intermediate  to  the 
pouring-basin  and  casting.  If  two  castings  are  poured  to- 
gether in  one  flask,  and  one  of  the  moulds  filled  by  means 
of  a  fountain  or  horn  runner  connected  with  the  bottom 
of  that  which  receives  the  metal  direct  from  the  ladle,  it  is 
evident  that  all  the  dirt  will  remain  in  the  latter,  while 
the  clean  iron  only  will  be  forced  into  the  former,  thus 
making  one  casting  a  skim-gate  to  the  other.  Any  inter- 
mediate receptacle,  not  necessarily  a  casting,  may  be  thus 
employed  to  intercept  the  dirt;  but  by  inserting  a  spherical 


Skimmer.  395  Skin. 

object,  us  a  ball,  etc.,  for  this  purpose,  and  allowing  the 
metal  to  enter  it  at  a  tangent  to  the  circumference  with 
force  sufficient  to  impart  a  rapid  rotary  motion  to  the 
entering  metal,  the  lighter  scum  is  forced  to  the  centre 
and  there  held  until  the  casting  or  castings  gated  from 
the  circumference  of  the  ball  are  filled  with  clean  metal. 
In  order  that  this  may  be  effective,  the  metal  must  enter 
the  ball  with  force  sufficient  to  keep  it  full,  so  that  the 
castings  may  be  fed  from  a  point  below  where  the  dirt  is 
held  imprisoned.  If  a  large  quantity  of  metal  must  neces- 
sarily pass  through  a  ball  of  limited  size,  a  riser  on  the 
ball  permits  the  accumulations  to  mount  well  above  the 
ingates.  See  GATES;  FOUNTAIN-BURNER. 

Skimmer. — A  tool  for  preventing  the  dirt  and  slag 
from  following  the  stream  as  the  metal  flows  from  the 
ladle-lip  into  the  runner.  They  are  simply  of  wood  in 
some  foundries;  but  generally  they  consist  of  a  long  piece 
of  flat  iron  bent  at  one  end,  or  a  long  light  bar  to  which  is 
welded  a  stronger  piece  of  flat  iron  bent  to  fit  the  ladle-lip. 
The  self-skimming  ladle  is  intended  to  obviate  the  neces- 
sity for  skimming.  See  LADLE;  LIP. 

Skin. — The  surface,  either  of  a  mould  or  casting,  is 
designated  as  the  skin  by  most  foundrymen.  The  aim  of 
a  conscientious  moulder  is  to  produce  castings  exactly  like 
the  model  or  pattern,  externally  and  internally;  free  from 
blown  and  shrunk  holes,  no  cold-shuts,  and  to  present  a 
clean  surface  or  skin — the  last  being  to  him  the  chief 
desideratum.  To  obtain  the  latter  quality  in  the  resultant 
casting  many  schemes  are  practised  in  order  that  the  in- 
tensely hot  and  liquid  metal  may  be  prevented  from  pene- 
trating beyond  the  skin  of  the  mould;  the  chief  agent 
employed  for  this  end  being  carbon,  which  is  contained  in 


Skinning-loam.  396 

some   proportion   in   nearly   all   the   facings   made.      See 
FACING;  FACING-SAND;  GRAPHITE. 

Skiniiiiig-loam. — Fine  loam  or  slip  which,  by  means 
of  the  spindle  or  guide  and  the  requisite  strickles,  gives  the 
final  shape  to  and  constitutes  the  surface  of  swept  moulds. 
See  LOAM;  ROUGHING-UP. 

Slack. — Fine  coal  or  screenings.    See  PRESSED  FUEL. 
Slacked-lime.— See  LIME-KILN. 

Slag. — Cupola  slag  is  sometimes  called  " scoria"  or 
"cinder,"  and  consists  of  the  fused  compounds  of  the  silica 
and  alumina  in  the  lining,  daubing,  and  dirt  which  are  too 
frequently  thrown  in  among  the  iron  and  fuel.  Impure 
fuel  also  adds  its  quota  to  this  readily  fusible  mass,  in 
addition  to  that  given  off  by  the  metal  itself.  If,  on 
account  of  burnt  or  dirty  iron  being  used,  it  be  deemed 
necessary  to  employ  limestone  or  anything  else  as  a  flux, 
the  quantity  of  slag  is  augmented  considerably,  and  means 
must  be  provided  for  conveying  some  portion  of  it  away, 
otherwise  it  will  prove  a  serious  detriment  to  the  effective 
action  of  the  cupola,  as  at  every  rise  of  the  metal  in  the 
bottom  this  superfluous  slag  is  forced  upwards  among 
the  fuel  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  tuyeres,  where 
by  the  action  of  the  blast  it  is  converted  into  an  im- 
penetrable mass,  through  which  ultimately  no  air  at  all  can 
be  forced.  Another  evil  attendant  upon  this  over-abun- 
dance of  slag  is  that  it  must  inevitably  make  its  appearance 
at  the  tap-hole  on  the  instant  of  the  issuing  stream  failing 
to  completely  fill  the  orifice,  defiling  ladles,  and  everything 
else  it  comes  in  contact  with;  making  it  necessary  some- 
times to  clear  all  away,  and  permit  its  being  blown  out  at 
the  tap-L  >le  into  the  pit  below. 


Slag.  397  Slag. 

Aii  effective  remedy  for  this  is  to  copy  the  tymp  and 
dam  stone  of  the  smelting-f  urnace,  and,  like  the  smelters, 
allow  this  slag  to  flow  away,  while  the  molten  iron  is 
allowed  to  collect  comparatively  clean  on  the  sand-bed 
below. 

By  making  a  large  tap-hole  some  distance  below  the 
tuyeres,  at  a  convenient  part  back  of  the  cupola,  a  spout 
may  be  attached  for  leading  the  liquid  slag  away.  This 
hole  is  to  be  prepared  somewhat  after  the  manner  employed 
for  the  tap-hole,  and  kept  securely  plugged  when  not  re- 
quired. When  it  is  thought  advisable  to  flow  off  superfluous 
slag,  allow  the  molten  iron  to  rise  in  the  bottom  until  the 
slag  makes  its  appearance  at  the  hole,  when  the  clay  plug 
may  be  taken  out,  and  it  will  at  once  issue  forth.  If  this 
operation  be  conducted  in  a  proper  manner,  and  repeated 
from  time  to  time,  there  need  be  no  trouble  from  this 
source  at  the  spout;  and  if  due  attention  is  paid  to  the 
tuyeres  (see  TUYERES),  the  duration  of  a  heat  in  the  cupola 
may  be  prolonged  indefinitely. 

When  clean  pig  iron,  of  good  ordinary  quality,  along  with 
pure  cast  scraps,  free  from  sand  and  rust,  is  melted  with 
coal  or  coke  comparatively  free  from  impurities;  and  when 
the  operation  is  conducted  according  to  the  best  rules  for 
practice,  in  a  well-kept  cupola  supplied  with  blast  at  an 
adequate  pressure  for  perfect  combustion,  and  no  more  ; 
and  allowing  that  the  melting  is  not  protracted  beyond 
a  reasonable  time — there  is  really  no  need  for  a  flux; 
and  as,  under  the  conditions  stated,  little  or  no  slag  would 
be  likely  to  gather,  it  is  plain  that  the  need  of  slagging 
cupolas  will  only  occur  in  proportion  as  such  conditions  fail 
of  being  met.  See  CUPOLA  ;  CHARGE  ;  RATIO  OF  FUEL  TO 
IRON;  SCRAP;  BUGS. 

Slag  oil  the  Surface  of  Castings.— See  FACING- 
SAND  ;  SEA-WATER. 


Slate.  398  Slicker. 

Slag-wool.— See  MINERAL  COTTON. 

Slate. — A  highly  metamorphosed  clay  rock,  consisting 
ing  essentially  of  clay.  The  particles  are  so  mechanically 
arranged  that  it  splits  into  plates  that  are  independent  of 
the  layers  of  deposit,  and  are  of  a  blue,  green,  gray,  or  black 
color.  Its  hardness  prevents  it  from  injury  when  exposed 
to  the  weather;  it  is  therefore  well  adapted  for  roofs  of 
houses,  etc.,  and  is  in  great  demand  for  enamelling  mantels 
and  other  objects,  being  by  this  means  made  to  imitate 
the  most  expensive  marbles  at  slight  cost.  Extensive 
quarries  of  this  substance  are  worked  in  Cornwall,  Wales, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland;  also  in  Vermont  and  other  States  in 
this  country. 

Adhesive  slate  absorbs  water  readily,  and  is  highly 
adhesive.  Aluminous  slate  yields  alum.  Bituminous  slate 
is  impregnated  with  bitumen.  Hornblende  slate  contains 
feldspar,  and  is  used  for  flagging.  Hones  are  made  from 
slate,  also  pencils  ;  and  the  slate-clay  which  consists  of  silica 
and  alumina  is  suitable  for  fire-brick.  See  ALUM. 

Slicker — sometimes  called  "sleeker"  and  "smoother" 
— is  a  moulder's  tool  that  usually  has  some  special  shape 
given  to  it  on  one  side.  The  other  side  has  a  finger-piece 
or  handle,  by  which  means  the  slicker  is  worked  upon  the 
sand  and  made  to  impart  smoothness  and  finish  to  the  sur- 
face. These  tools  are  of  cast  iron,  brass,  and  steel,  highly 
polished  on  the  face  side,  and  are  known  as  corner,  elbow, 
pipe,  button,  flange,  bead,  and  web  slickers,  etc.  Consid- 
erable dexterity  of  hand  and  eye  must  be  acquired  before 
the  moulder  can  use  these  tools  creditably,  and  only 
the  most  skilled  workmen  should  be  allowed  to  use  them 
indiscriminately.  Inferior  artists  are  apt  to  linger  too  long 
over  the  work,  and  their  unpractised  eye  and  lack  of  taste 
invariably  end  in.  producing  lines  that  bear  no  resemblance 


Sling.  399  Smoothers. 

whatever  to  the  original  pattern;  but  on  such  parts  as  offer 
few  difficulties  they  will  smooth  the  surface  with  such 
frequency  that  the  alumina  in  the  sand  is  worked  into  a 
clayey  skin  on  the  surface,  which,  if  it  be  not  already  loos- 
ened, will  more  than  likely  shrink  and  break  away  in  scabs 
when  the  metal  covers  it.  See  SCABBED  CASTINGS. 

Sling. — A  foundry  device  for  handling  and  conveying 
flasks  and  loam-moulds.  The  stirrup-sling  reaches  from  bot- 
tom lugs  of  a  foundation-plate  to  the  binders,  or  cross  for 
binding  the  mould  together,  and  serves  the  purpose  of  lifting 
the  moulds  also.  Beam-slings  are  also  stirrup,  except  that 
the  lower  end  is  usually  made  to  fit  the  trunnion  of  a  flask; 
by  this  means  copes  are  reversed  by  simply  lifting  with  one 
sling  at  each  end  of  the  beam.  Chain-slings  have  stirrups, 
and  are  joined  in  pairs  generally  to  one  ring.  The  link- 
sling  is  simply  a  long  welded  link,  and  may  be  round,  oval, 
or  square  ended.  Rope-slings,  being  flexible,  are  extremely 
useful  in  the  foundry.  See  BEAM-SLINGS;  ROPE-SLINGS. 

Slip. — A  common  name  for  skinning-loam.     See  SKIN- 

NING-LOAM. 

Smelting. — Fusing  or  melting  the  ores  of  metals, 
along  with  suitable  fluxes,  in  order  to  separate  the  metallic 
part  from  the  earthy,  stony,  and  other  parts.  See  REDUC- 
TION OF  METALS;  CAST  IRON;  METALS;  ORES. 

Smelting  Cast  Iron. — See  CAST  IRON;  ORES;  RE- 
DUCTION OF  METALS. 

Smeltiiig-furnace. — The  smelting-furnace  for  iron 
is  described  at  "  CAST  IRON  "  (q.v.).  See  also  ORES. 

Smoothers. — Moulders'  tools.     See  SLICKER. 


Snap-flask.  400  Snap-moulding. 

Snap-flask. — Besides  the  common  simp-flask  made 
at  most  foundries,  there  are  some  very  excellent  devices 
made  for  this  purpose  by  the  several  patentees.  One  is  an 
adjustable  combination  wood  and  metal  snap-flask  that  can 
be  adjusted  to  a  variety  of  sizes.  The  wood  parts  of  the 
flask  are  the  pieces  to  which  the  hinge  is  attached,  and  also 
the  parts  to  which  the  latch  is  fastened.  The  steel  pieces 
are  the  inside  lining.  The  wood  and  steel  pieces  are  fas- 
tened together  with  bolts,  and  by  means  of  a  long  slot  the 
flask  can  be  spread  to  the  desired  size.  The  wood  is  |-inch 
cherry,  and  the  steel  is  ^-inch.  It  is  provided  with  a  spring- 
latch,  making  it  easy  to  open  and  close.  Similar  flasks  are 
made  all  steel,  having  the  same  adjustment.  Making  them 
of  the  latter  metal  has  suggested  the  round  steel  snap-flask, 
which  is  very  light,  and  requires  much  less  sand  than  the 
square  one.  For  all  who  desire  to  manufacture  their  own 
snap-flasks,  trimmings,  including  latches,  hinges,  and  pins, 
can  be  had  of  infinite  variety.  Latches  are  made  of  mal- 
leable iron,  with  flat,  oil-tempered  steel  spring.  When  the 
flask  is  closed  the  latch  makes  a  solid  locked  corner,  and  it 
is  so  placed  that  by  pulling  latches  together  with  finger  and 
thumb  of  one  hand,  the  flask  opens  freely.  Hinges  are 
made  with  the  view  of  obviating  any  pinching  of  sand 
while  closing.  Any  number  of  adjustable  pins  may  also 
be  had  which  can  be  perfectly  fitted  in  a  few  moments. 
See  SNAP-MOULDER. 

Snap-moulding  is  bench-moulding;  but  instead  of 
using  the  customary  iron  or  wood  flasks,  the  moulder  is 
provided  with  a  "  snap- flask,"  inside  of  which  he  rams  all 
his  moulds,  carrying  them  to  the  floor,  when  completed, 
one  by  one,  in  order  for  casting.  When  the  snap  is  removed 
a  flat  weight  holds  it  down.  A  hole  in  the  weight  permits 
the  metal  to  be  run  down  the  sprue  and  pouring  all  off, 
independent  of  the  usual  surrounding  flask.  If  the  sand 


Snug.  401  Soapstone. 

walls  are  not  able  to  withstand  the  pressure  exerted  when 
the  mould  is  poured,  a  light  iron  band  answering  to  the 
form  of  the  snap  is  rammed  within  it.  By  this  method  the 
moulds  are  sustained  like  any  other  flasked  ones,  the  differ- 
ence being  that  the  light  iron  bands  are  not  pinned  to- 
gether. See  SNAP-FLASK;  BENCH-MOULDER. 

Snug". — An  attachment  cast  to  or  bolted  on  flasks. 
Two  or  more  snugs  meet  at  the  joint  of  the  flask;  one  set  has 
pins,  the  other  holes  to  receive  them,  constituting  a  guide. 
See  LUGS. 

Soap. — The  alkalies  used  for  soap-making  are  potash 
and  soda.  They  must  be  in  a  caustic  state,  and  this  is  pro- 
duced by  dissolving  them  and  passing  the  solution  through 
newly  slacked  lime,  which  takes  away  the  carbonic  acid.  In 
this  caustic  lye  the  fats  are  boiled,  their  glycerine  set  free, 
and  the  soap  formed  in  a  state  of  solution  in  the  water. 
The  soap  is  obtained  in  the  solid  form  by  boiling  this  solu- 
tion until  the  soap  ceases  to  be  soluble  and  rises  to  the 
surface,  when  it  is  drawn  off  into  moulds.  Castile-soap 
is  composed  of  olive-oil  and  soda;  oxide  of  iron  is  the 
cause  of  its  mottled  appearance.  See  OILS;  PANS;  SOAP- 
KETTLE. 

Soap-kettle. — Some  of  the  kettles  for  this  purpose 
are  covered  in  and  provided  with  a  large  bend-pipe  to  re- 
ceive the  vapors.  The  watery  matter  is  condensed,  and 
drawn  off  at  the  bottom ;  the  inflammable  vapors  are  drawn 
under  the  fire.  See  PANS. 

Soapstone  is  steatite,  and  termed  soapstone  because 
of  the  smooth,  greasy  feel  it  has  between  the  fingers.  It  is 
a  hydrated  silicate  of  magnesia — a  massive  variety  of  talc, 
which  when  pure  and  compact  is  highly  refractory,  and 


Socket  pipe.  402  Sodium. 

suitable  for  furnace-linings  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
fire-brick.  Soapstone,  ground  very  fine  and  mixed  with 
carbon  facings,  makes  an  excellent  material  for  coating  the 
moulds  of  hollow  ware  and  stove-plate  castings,  being  espe- 
cially useful  as  a  return-facing  for  printing  with.  See  KE- 
TURN-FACING;  PRINTING. 

Socket-pipe. — A  water  or  gas  pipe  with  a  bell  and 
spigot  at  its  respective  ends.  The  bell  receives  the  spigot 
end  of  another  pipe,  with  some  clearance  for  lead  or  other 
packing  with  which  to  make  a  tight  joint.  A  depression 
in  the  bell  holds  the  packing,  and  the  collar  on  the  end  of 
the  spigot  prevents  the  latter  from  slipping  out.  See  CAST- 
IRON  PIPES. 

Soda. — A  compound  of  oxygen  and  a  metallic  basis 
called  sodium.  It  was  formerly  called  mineral  alkali,  as  it 
is  found  in  mineral  seams  and  crusts,  and  in  great  abun- 
dance in  certain  lakes  in  Egypt  being  brought  thither  by 
the  water  which  enters  from  the  neighboring  country 
during  the  overflow  of  the  Nile,  and  precipitated  by 
evaporation  during  the  dry  season.  Barilla  is  impure 
soda  obtained  by  burning  plants  near  the  sea.  Kelp  is 
obtained  by  burning  seaweed.  For  the  purposes  of  com- 
merce, soda  is  obtained  from  common  salt.  See  SALT  ; 
SODIUM. 

Sodium. — This  is  a  very  widely  diffused  and  abundant 
element.  As  chloride,  it  occurs  in  rock-salt,  sea-water, 
salt-springs,  and  many  mineral  waters ;  and  as  silicate,  in 
many  minerals.  Metallic  sodium  was  first  discovered  by 
Sir  Humphry  Davy.  It  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner 
as  potassium,  requires  the  same  measures  for  its  preserva- 
tion, and  exhibits  properties  similar  to  those  of  that  metal. 
See  POTASSIUM  ;  SALT  ;  SODA  ;  FLUID  ALLOY, 


Soft-blast.  403  Softeners. 

Soft-blast. — The  blast  is  termed  "soft"  when  it  is 
feeble  and  lacks  force.  A  too  low  pressure  of  blast  burns 
the  fuel  without  melting  at  full  duty,  and  below  a  certain 
amount  of  pressure  the  fuel  would  burn  away,  leaving  the 
metal  unmelted.  See  BLOWER;  BLAST-PRESSURE ;  COM- 
BUSTION. 

Soft-centre  Steel. — Bar  steel  with  a  hard  surface 
enclosing  a  tough  centre  core  of  mild  or  soft  steel.  This 
steel  is  used  especially  for  making  articles  that,  besides  hav- 
ing a  hard-tempered  surface,  must  possess  the  strength  of 
mild  steel.  The  mild-steel  ingot  is  cast,  hammered  down, 
and  treated  in  the  cementation-furnace  until  the  surface 
has  been  carburized  to  the  depth  required,  when  it  is  again 
subjected  to  the  process  of  rolling  or  hammering  down  to 
the  size  and  shape  of  bar  needed.  See  CEMENTATION; 
BLISTER-STEEL. 

Softeners  are  a  class  of  pig  iron  containing  such  soften- 
ing qualities  as  will  destroy,  or  at  least  neutralize,  opposite 
qualities  existing  in  other  irons  ;  or  they  may  wholly  con- 
sist of  another  metal  to  alloy  with  iron,  as  aluminum  or 
aluminum  ferro-silicons,  etc.  The  softening  elements  in 
pig  iron  are  graphitic  carbon  and  silicon,  while  combined 
carbon,  phosphorus,  manganese,  and  sulphur  may  be  classed 
as  hardeners.  It  is  an  established  fact  that  all  pig  irons 
low  in  the  latter  elements,  and  which  are  at  the  same  time 
high  as  to  the  former,  are  recognized  as  softeners,  because 
of  the  remarkable  quality  of  silicon  to  change  chemically 
combined  carbon  to  graphitic  carbon  ;  in  other  words, 
changing  hard  iron  to  soft,  and  enabling  the  founder  to 
use  up  large  quantities  of  inferior  irons,  at  reduced  cost, 
by  the  simple  admixture  of  another  iron  that  costs  no  more 
than  any  other  ordinary  brand;  and  all  this  without  any 
deteriorating  effect  on  the  resultant  castings.  See  SCOTCH 
PIG  IRON;  SILICON;  ANALYSIS. 


Soft  Pig  Iron.  404  Solder. 

Soft  Pig  Iron. — This  iron  is  usually  termed  gray  pig 
iron,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  hard  irons,  which  are 
lighter  in  color,  even  to  whiteness.  A  chemical  analysis  of 
a  really  soft  pig  iron  should  exhibit  about  the  following 
percentages  of  constituent  elements  : 

Graphitic  carbon 3.36  per  cent. 

Silicon ...  2.78    "      " 

Phosphorus 0.40    "      " 

Manganese 0.40    "      " 

Sulphur 0.01    "      " 

Combined  carbon 0.20    "      " 

Any  addition  over  the  quantities  given,  except  for  graphite 
and  silicon,  would  tend  to  increase  the  hardness.  See 
GRAY  PIG  IRON;  SOFTENERS. 

Soft  Solder.  —  One  of  the  soldering  alloys.  See 
SOLDER. 

Solder. — Soldering  is  a  process  by  which  solid  metallic 
substances  are  united  by  the  intervention  of  a  more  fusible 
metal  or  solder,  which,  when  placed  between  them  and 
fused,  unites  the  three  parts  into  a  solid  mass;  sometimes, 
however,  the  joining  of  two  edges  or  surfaces  may  be  ac- 
complished by  fusing  or  melting  with  the  same  metal. 
Solders  are  made  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  bismuth, 
etc.;  usually  observing  that  in  the  composition  there  shall 
be  some  of  the  metal  that  is  to  be  soldered,  mixed  with 
some  higher  and  finer  metals.  The  coppersmith's  hearth, 
standing  off  from  the  wall,  is  a  convenient  fire  for  hard- 
soldering  or  brazing.  The  brazier's  hearth  is  usually  an 
iron  plate  with  fire-box  underneath  ;  a  convenient  aperture 
in  the  plate  allows  the  heat  to  play  direct  on  the  work  as  it 
rests  on  the  table,  the  force  being  regulated  by  a  fan-blast. 
For  fine  and  complicated  soldering,  the  blowpipe  is  best; 


Solder.  405  Solder. 

the  wind  for  which  is  sometimes  obtained  mechanically, 
hut  more  commonly  hy  blowing  with  the  mouth.  Jewelry 
manufacturers  employ  a  trough  or  shoot  of  circular  form, 
through  which  a  gas  flame  is  urged  by  means  of  a  pair  of 
ordinary  bellows.  The  common  blowpipe  in  the  workshop 
is  the  oxyhydrogen,  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  used  at  any 
desired  angle. 

Silver  solder  is  usually  employed  for  fine  work  in  brass, 
iron,  or  steel,  and  the  brazing  is  effected  by  laying  thin 
plates  of  the  solder  on  the  joints,  which  have  been  pre- 
viously moistened  with  borax  and  water.  For  gold  and 
silver  soldering,  the  borax  is  usually  made  into  a  creamy 
paste  by  rubbing  with  water  and  then  painting  over  the 
parts  to  be  joined.  Solders  of  this  class  are  often  drawn 
into  wire,  but  generally  they  are  in  thin  plates,  so  that 
pieces  of  an  exact  size  may  be  cut  and  laid  over  the  work 
to  be  soldered. 

Before  soldering  or  brazing  can  be  successfully  done, 
the  joining  surfaces  must  be  made  absolutely  clean  and 
smooth,  and  a  suitable  flux  employed  in  order  that  the 
metal  or  metals  will  unite  to  the  solder  at  a  low  temperature. 
The  flux  for  steel  is,  sal-ammoniac  1,  borax  10 — these  in- 
gredients to  be  powdered  together,  fused,  and  pulverized  ; 
for  iron,  borax  or  sal-ammoniac  ;  for  pewter,  olive-oil;  for 
tinned  iron,  chloride  of  zinc  or  rosin;  for  lead  and  tin, 
rosin  or  sweet-oil;  for  copper  and  brass,  chloride  of  zinc 
or  sal-ammoniac ;  for  lead-pipe,  tallow  or  rosin ;  for  zinc, 
chloride  of  zinc  ;  for  spelter-solder,  borax. 

Owing  to  the  greater  affinity  of  copper  for  zinc  than  for 
tin,  some  difficulty  is  usually  experienced  when  zinc  is  to 
be  soldered  with  the  copper-bit  or  soldering-iron.  This 
metal  seems  to  remove  the  tin  coating  from  the  copper-bit, 
causing  much  trouble  sometimes;  but  this  maybe  obviated 
by  using  the  soldering  fluid  as  a  flux.  The  latter  flux  is 
an  admirable  one  for  nearly  all  other  metals,  and  does  not 


Solder.  40C  Solder. 

necessitate  that  degree  of  cleanness  so  essential  when  other 
fluxes  are  employed. 

Soldering  fluid  is  made  by  taking  two  ounces  muriatic 
acid,  add  zinc  till  the  bubbles  cease  to  rise,  then  add  one 
half-teaspoon ful  sal-ammoniac  and  two  ounces  water.  Iron 
and  steel  may  be  soldered  by  using  this  fluid  flux  without 
any  previous  tinning. 

Gold  is  the  solder  for  platinum,  with  borax  for  a  flux. 
See  GOLD-COLDER. 

A  good  solder  for  iron  is  good  tough  brass,  with  borax 
for  the  flux.  See  BRASS. 

For  the  hammered-brass  solder  add  a  little  chloride  of 
potassium  to  the  borax  for  a  flux. 

Iron  is  soldered  to  steel  or  either  to  brass  by  applying 
in  a  molten  state  tin  3,  copper  39£,  zinc  7^  parts. 

Cold-soldering  (without  fire)  is  done  by  using  a  mixture 
composed  of  bismuth  ^  ounce,  quicksilver  ^  ounce,  block- 
tin  filings  1  ounce,  muriatic  acid  1  ounce. 

Cold-brazing  (without  fire):  Brass-filings  2  ounces,  steel- 
filings  2  ounces,  fluoric  acid  £  ounce.  Place  the  filings  in 
the  acid  and,  when  dissolved,  apply  the  solution  to  the 
parts  to  be  joined.  Fluoric  acid  should  be  kept  in  lead  or 
earthen  vessels. 

Brass  is  readily  soldered,  in  some  cases,  by  first  using 
sal-ammoniac  as  a  flux  and  then  placing  a  piece  of  tin-foil 
between  the  pieces  and  applying  the  hot  iron  until  it 
melts. 

German  silver  is  soldered  by  first  applying  the  soldering 
fluid  as  a  flux  and  using  pewter  solder  with  the  blowpipe. 

When  arsenic  is  mixed  with  solders  it  should  be  added 
at  the  last,  taking  care  to  avoid  the  fumes.  - 

When  brass  is  emploj'ed  as  an  ingredient  it  should  be 
added  after  fusing  the  other  metals,  to  avoid  wasting  the 
zinc.  The  following  are  the  ingredients  used  for  making 
solders  in  common  use: 


Solids. 


407 


Solids. 


Arsenic. 

Hardening. 

2 

i 

§ 

H 

ts 

pd 

1 

w 

Bismuth. 

h 

1 

3 

Antimony. 

1 

1  ° 

Plumber's  solder         

3 

5 

1 

ti              it 
Spelter-solder,  for  brass.  .  . 

1 

1 

2 
1 

1 

Pewterer's  soft  solder  
Zinc-solder        

3 
1 

4 
1-9 

2 

Glazier's  solder  

3 

3 
2 

1 

2 

White  solder  for  raised  Bri- 

8 

100 

8 

Hardening  for   Britannia- 
ware                    

1 

2 

Soft  solder  for  Britannia- 
ware   

8 

5 

Yellow  solder  for  brass  or 
copper       

29 

32 

Yellow  solder  for  brass  or 
copper,  easily  fused  
Bismuth-solder  

55 

1 

B 

3 

45 

Solder  for  brass,  to  be  ham- 

17.41 

78  26 

4 

Brass-solder      

383 

6H 

"     white  
Solder  for  steel  joints  
Gold-solder         

1 

27.99 

14.60 

2 

57.41 
1 
3 

19 
«* 

"      fine  ... 
Silver-solder,  hard  

12 

2 

1 

2 

4 

"           "               SOft  

3 

1 

o 

Jewellers'  solder,  hard  — 
"         medium 
"        softer  .. 

1* 
1* 

? 

1* 

16 
15 
14 

Spelter-solder   for   copper 

12 

16 

Solids. — Matter  exists  in  three  forms — solid,  liquid, 
and  gaseous.  When  the  particles  of  a  body  cohere,  as  in 
ice,  metals,  etc.,  so  that  they  cannot  move  among  them- 
selves, it  is  said  to  be  a  solid.  All  solids,  except  clay,  are 
expanded  by  heat,  but  not  equally.  (See  EXPANSION.) 
Clay  contracts  in  baking  and  ever  afterwards  remains  so. 
Solids  are  melted  by  heat,  and  the  process  is  termed  lique- 
faction. A  solid  is  firm  and  compact,  and,  unlike  fluids, 
offers  a  sensible  resistance  to  penetration  and  impression. 
See  FLUIDS. 


Solid  Shot.  408  Soot. 

Solid  Shot.— See  HOLLOW  SHOT. 

Solubility,  or  Solubleness,  is  the  susceptibility  of  a 
body  to  being  dissolved  in  a  fluid.  Solution  is  favored  by 
whatever  weakens  cohesion.  When  the  force  of  adhesion  of 
the  particles  of  a  liquid  for  a  solid  exceeds  the  whole  cohe- 
sive force  of  the  latter,  its  cohesion  is  overcome  and  solution 
occurs,  which  means  that  the  solid  disappears  and  mixes 
uniformly  with  the  liquid.  See  SATUKATION;  ADHESION. 

Soluble  Glass.— This  alkaline  silicate,  known  as 
water-glass,  liquid  quartz,  etc.,  was  discovered  by  Prof. 
Fuchs  of  Munich,  1825.  It  has  the  property  of  solubility 
in  water,  and  may  while  in  that  state  be  applied  to  glass 
painting,  waterproofing  materials,  restoration  of  decaying 
stone  buildings,  and  as  a  binding  element  in  artificial 
stone.  When  the  water  has  evaporated  it  leaves  a  hard, 
gelatinous,  transparent  glass,  which  is  impervious  to  water 
or  destructive  atmospheric  changes.  Mixed  with  metallic 
oxides  it  is  a  good  paint  for  frescos,  arid  also  for  commoner 
purposes.  The  solution  is  obtained  by  fusing  together 
pulverized  quartz  15,  potash  10,  and  pulverized  charcoal  1. 
This  mass  when  cold  is  crushed,  and  boiled  for  three  hours 
in  five  times  its  weight  of  water,  taking  care  to  supply  what 
is  lost  by  evaporation.  The  result  is  a  viscid  mass,  which 
must  be  preserved  in  well-stoppered  vessels.  The  glass 
may  be  diluted  to  suit  whatever  purpose  it  is  employed 
for. 

Solvent  for  Gold. — Mix  equal  parts  of  nitric  and 
muriatic  acids.  See  GOLD  ;  AQUA  REGIA. 

Soot  is  formed  by  the  fuel  which  escapes  combustion, 
and  is  composed  principally  of  particles  of  carbon  from  a 
coal  or  wood  fire.  The  lighter  particles  of  ash  are  also  mixed 


Sour  Beer.  409  Specific  Gravity. 

with  it,  as  well  as  hydrocarbons  from  unburnt  hydrocarbon 
vapors,  and  some  ammoniacal  salts.  The  latter  qualities  are 
what  makes  soot  valuable  as  a  manure.  See  CARBON. 

Sour  Beer. — This  unpleasant  wash  was  formerly  in 
great  demand  for  hardening  cores  and  mould  surfaces.  See 
BEER;  CORE-WASH. 

Sow. — The  heavy  pig  iron  which  has  served  as  a  leading 
channel  from  the  spout  of  the  blast-furnace,  and  which 
serves  the  purpose  of  a  runner  to  the  pigs  when  the  tap  is 
made.  The  pigs  are  forcibly  separated  from  it  immediately 
the  iron  has  solidified.  See  CAST  IRON;  PIG  IRON. 

Spade.— See  SHOVEL. 

Spanish  Tutaiiia. — If  8  ounces  of  iron  or  steel  be 
melted  with  16  ounces  of  antimony  and  3  ounces  of  nitre, 
by  adding  the  latter  ingredients  in  small  pieces  after  the 
steel  is  white  hot  a  hardening  is  made,  of  which  1  ounce  is 
sufficient  to  harden  8  ounces  of  tin.  See  TUTANIA. 

Spathic  Iron  Ore  is  the  purest  variety  of  clay  iron- 
stone in  which  the  metal  occurs  as  a  ferrous  carbonate. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  the  pig  iron  produced  in 
England  is  smelted  from  these  ores,  the  inferior  grades  of 
which  constitute  the  clay  ironstone  and  blackband  iron- 
stone of  the  coal-measures.  See  ORES. 

Specific  Gravity. — A  term  used  to  express  the 
comparative  weight  of  different  substances.  The  specific 
gravity  of  a  substance  is  the  weight  of  a  given  bulk  of  it 
compared  with  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  some  other 
substance  taken  as  a  standard.  The  standard  employed  is 
a  fixed  one,  being  distilled  water  at  a  temperature  of  60 


Specific  Gravity.  410  Specific  Gravity. 

degrees.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  silver  is  10J  times 
as  much  as  the  same  measure  of  water;  accordingly,  the 
specific  gravity  of  water  being  1,  that  of  silver  is  10J.  A 
cubic  inch  of  cork  weighs  -f^  as  much  as  the  same  bulk  of 
water;  the  specific  gravity  of  cork,  therefore,  is  -f^  or  .24. 
Mercury,  water,  and  oil  if  thrown  into  a  tumbler  will  arrange 
themselves  in  the  order  of  their  specific  gravities:  the  mer- 
cury at  the  bottom,  being  the  heaviest;  then  the  water;  on 
top  of  this  the  oil,  being  the  lightest.  Gases,  like  liquids, 
differ  in  their  specific  gravity.  Smoke  ascends,  being 
lighter  then  air.  Hydrogen  is  so  much  lighter  than  air 
that  it  will  ascend  with  a  loaded  balloon.  Contrary  to 
this,  because  carbonic-acid  gas  is  heavier  than  air,  it  remains 
at  the  bottom  of  wells,  etc. 

A  cubic  inch  of  iron  weighs  7J  times  as  much  as  a  like 
bulk  of  water,  and  will  therefore  sink  in  the  latter;  but  if 
hammered  out  into  a  vessel  containing  more  than  7|  cubic 
inches,  the  same  iron  will  float,  simply  because  it  is  lighter 
than  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  A  floating  substance  displaces 
its  own  weight  of  liquid;  and  a  body  immersed  in  water 
loses  as  much  weight  as  the  water  it  displaces  weighs. 
The  specific  gravity  of  a  liquid  is  easily  obtained  in  the 
following  manner:  Fill  a  glass  vessel,  whose  weight  is 
known,  with  water  to  a  certain  mark,  and  weigh  it;  sub- 
tract the  weight  of  the  vessel  and  you  have  the  weight 
of  the  water  alone.  Then  fill  the  vessel  to  the  same  height 
with  the  liquid  in  question,  weigh  it  again,  and  subtract 
the  weight  of  the  vessel  as  before.  To  find  its  specific 
gravity  divide  its  weight  by  that  of  the  water. 

A  simple  way  of  finding  the  specific  gravity  of  a 
solid  would  be  to  take  a  certain  bulk,  as  a  cubic  inch  or 
cubic  foot,  ascertain  its  weight,  and  divide  it  by  a  like  bulk 
of  water.  There  is  difficulty,  however,  in  obtaining  any 
given  bulk  exactly,  for  which  reason  other  methods  are 
adopted. 


Specific  Gravity.  411  Specific  Gravity 

If  the  solid  sinks  in  water,  weigh  it  first  in  air  and  then 
in  water  by  means  of  a  balance  provided  for  the  purpose. 
Divide  its  weight  in  air  by  the  weight  it  loses  in  water,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  its  specific  gravity.  This  is  exactly  the 
same  as  dividing  the  weight  of  the  solid  by  that  of  an  equal 
bulk  of  water,  for  it  has  been  shown  that  a  solid  weighed 
in  a  liquid  loses  as  much  weight  as  the  liquid  it  displaces 
weighs.  A  piece  of  platinum  weighs  22  grains  in  air  and 
21  in  water.  If  we  divide  22  (its  weight  in  air)  by  1  (the 
loss  of  weight  in  water),  we  obtain  22  for  the  platinum's 
specific  gravity. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  solid  that  floats  on  water  is 
found  by  attaching  something  heavy  enough  to  sink  it. 
These  are  then  weighed  in  air  and  in  water,  and  the  loss  of 
weight  in  water  found  by  subtraction,  as  before.  In  the 
same  manner  find  how  much  weight  the  heavy  body  alone 
loses  in  water,  and  subtract  this  from  the  loss  sustained  by 
the  two,  which  gives  the  weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal 
to  the  body  under  examination.  Divide  the  body's  weight 
in  air  by  this  remainder,  and  the  specific  gravity  is  obtained. 

The  specific  gravity  of  gases  is  found  by  a  similar  process 
to  that  for  liquids.  The  standard  is  air.  A  glass  flask  with 
stop-cock  is  weighed  when  full  of  air,  and  again  when  the 
air  has  been  exhausted;  the  weight  of  the  flask  full  of  air 
is  the  difference  between  these  weights.  The  flnsk  is  now 
filled  with  the  gas  in  question,  and  again  weighed;  this 
weight,  less  that  of  the  exhausted  flask,  is  the  weight  of  a 
flask  full  of  the  gas.  Divide  the  weight  of  the  gas  by  that 
of  the  air,  and  the  quotient  is  the  specific  gravity  required. 

If  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body  is  known,  it  is  easy  to 
discover  how  much  any  given  bulk  of  it  weighs.  A  cubic 
foot  of  water  weighs  1000  ounces,  or  62  J  pounds.  The 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  any  given  substance  will  therefore 
be  equal  to  62^  pounds  multiplied  by  its  specific  gravity;  as 
follows:  What  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  silver?  The 


Specific-gravity  Balance.  412  Speculum  Metals. 

specific  gravity  of  silver  is  10.474.  This  multiplied  into 
62.5  gives  653.478  pounds, — the  weight  required.  See 
HYDROSTATIC  BALANCE;  WEIGHT  OF  METALS. 

Specific-gravity  Balance. — An  instrument  for 
finding  the  specific  gravity  of  substances.  The  hydrometer 
or  areometer  is  used  for  finding  the  specific  gravity  of 
fluids.  Many  kinds  of  these  instruments  are  employed  for 
this  purpose,  but  they  are  all  dependent  on  the  principle 
that  the  weights  required  to  immerse  a  light  bulb  of  glass 
in  different  fluids  are  in  proportion  to  the  density  of  such 
fluids.  See  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY;  HYDROSTATIC  BALANCE. 

Specular  Iron. — Specular  oxide  of  iron  occurs  crys- 
tallized in  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Some  of  these  crystals 
have  a  polish  like  burnished  steel;  others  are  tarnished  and 
appear  of  a  red,  blue,  or  yellow  color.  The  most  beautiful 
specimens  come  from  Elba,  where  this  iron  is  said  to  have 
been  worked  for  three  thousand  years.  Its  composition  is 
iron  69,  oxygen  31. 

Speculum  Metals  are  alloys  of  exceeding  brittle- 
ness  and  hardness,  and  so  brilliant  when  polished  truly  as 
to  be  used  for  the  mirror-surface  of  reflecting  telescopes. 
It  is  therefore  called  speculum  metal.  The  quality  of 
these  alloys  greatly  deteriorates  by  a  slight  deviation  to 
either  side  of  the  true  atomic  proportions.  Their  extreme 
brittleness  necessitates  great  care  in  cooling  castings  made 
from  them,  so  that  nothing  shall  interfere  to  prevent  all 
the  parts  cooling  proportionately.  Slow  cooling  in  hot 
ashes  acts  beneficially  by  annealing  the  metal.  As  arsenic 
enters  into  the  most  of  these  mixtures,  it  is  important 
that  a  good  flux  be  employed  to  cause  a  perfect  union 
with  the  other  metals.  One  part  nitre  and  two  of  tartar 
is  a  suitable  flux  for  this  purpose.  The  arsenic  should 


Spelter. 


413 


Spider. 


be  broken  in  fragments  and  tied  in  strong  paper ;  it  may 
then  be  secured  in  the  tongs  and  thrust  under  the  surface 
— after  which  stir  well  and  avoid  the  fumes.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  table  of  speculum  alloys : 

SPECULUM  ALLOYS. 


i 
£ 

i 

A 

H 

Antimony. 

d 

•1 

.2 

i 

32 

15 

2 

"        "      better          

i 

82 

15 

1 

1 

"        "     highly  lustrous  .... 
«        «         <«            « 

Steel  hard  

i 

32 
32 
1 

16.5 
15 
1 

1.25 

4 
1 

2 

1 

Lord  liosse's     

126  8 

58  9 

Sir  I  Newton's  (yellow)   

6 

2 

1 

^V^liite  (antimony  mix  )  .    ...... 

7 

1 

1 

"      (with  zidcj  

7 

4 

3 

—  See  KOSSE'S  TELESCOPE  ;  BRASS  MIRRORS. 

Spelter.  —  The  plates  of  manufactured  zinc  are  called 
spelter  in  commerce.  Spelter  solder  is  made  from  equal 
parts  of  zinc  and  copper;  this  is  for  ordinary  use  on  brass. 
A  little  harder,  for  copper  and  iron,  is  ziuc  3,  copper  4. 
See  SOLDERS; 


Sphere.  —  A  solid  contained  under  one  uniform  round 
surface,  such  as  would  be  formed  by  revolving  a  circle 
about  a  diameter  thereof  as  an  axis.  Every  point  on  the 
surface  of  a  sphere  is  equally  distant  from  its  centre. 

Spider,  or  tripod,  is  an  end  attachment  for  a  core- 
barrel,  to  be  used  when  the  core  must  be  suspended  within 
the  mould  by  means  of  bearings  at  the  top  —  as  in  guns  and 


Spiegeleisen.  414  Spill-trough. 

hydraulic  cylinders.  It  consists  of  a  central  vertical  bush, 
with  three  arms  extending  horizontally,  on  the  ends  of 
which  are  vertical  standards  which  constitute  as  many  legs 
or  feet,  which  must  rest  on  the  outer  mould  or  cope.  The 
central  bush  encircles  the  barrel,  and  is  connected  with  the 
latter  by  means  of  three  lugs,  which  are  cast  on  the  barrel, 
the  holes  in  which  correspond  to  three  other  holes  in  the 
spider.  See  ORDNANCE. 

kpiegeleiseii. — A  name  now  generally  given  to  the 
varieties  of  pig  iron,  containing  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of 
manganese.  When  the  percentage  exceeds  that  amount 
it  is  called  ferro- manganese.  See  FERRO- MANGANESE; 

MANGANESE. 

Spike. — A  sharpened  instrument  of  iron,  used  in  some 
foundries  for  drawing  patterns  out  of  the  sand.  On  the 
whole,  they  are  a  very  unsatisfactory  device;  for,  whether 
the  pattern  is  drawn  or  not,  it  is  certain  to  be  damaged 
more  or  less  in  the  operation.  A  hole  bored  for  a  wood- 
screw  is  less  likely  to  split  the  pattern;  but  the  rapping- 
plate  and  iron  screw  is  more  reliable,  and  should  be  adopted 
on  all  patterns  when  practicable.  Heavy  nails  over  4£  inches 
long  are  in  the  foundry  usually  designated  as  spike-nails  or 
spikes.  See  RAPPING-PLATE;  SPRING  PATTERN-LIFTER. 

Spill -trough. — A  shallow -dished  trough  of  iron, 
about  2  feet  wide  and  G  feet  long,  supported  about  10 
inches  above  the  floor  on  four  feet,  against  which  the  brass- 
moulder  leans  his  small  flasks  on  end  for  pouring  with  the 
crucible.  The  trough  catches  whatever  may  overflow  at 
the  gate  or  spill  from  the  crucible;  and,  besides  this,  it 
serves  as  a  general  receptacle  for  every  description  of  brass- 
scrap  that  is  made.  The  contents  are  silted  from  time  to 
time  and  the  scrap  remelted. 


Spindle.  415  Spindle. 

Spindle. — A  shaft  or  mandrel  with  which  to  sweep 
circular  moulds  in  sand  or  loam.  Spindles  vary  in  diam- 
eter and  length,  according  to  the  class  of  work  they  are 
used  for.  For  sweeping  ordinary  work,  the  arm  to  which 
the  sweep  is  secured  is  keyed,  or  otherwise  made  fast  to 
the  spindle,  and  the  latter  is  made  to  revolve  ;  but  when 
a  vertical  motion  must  be  given  simultaneously  with  the 
rotative,  as  in  sweeping  propeller  blades,  the  arm  must  be 
free  to  slide  up  and  down  a  fixed  spindle.  A  fixed  spindle 
may  be  made  to  answer  for  all  ordinary  work  by  securing  a 
collar  at  the  height  desired,  and  allowing  the  arm  to  rest 
thereon  as  it  revolves.  When  practicable  it  is  always 
preferable  in  long  spindles  to  have  a  dull  point  at  the 
bottom  end,  working  in  the  countersunk  hole  of  an  iron 
block  that  is  sunk  level  with  the  floor,  and  the  perpen- 
dicular maintained  by  a  suitable  arm  extending  from  the 
wall.  The  method  of  making  spindles  with  straight  sockets 
and  collars  is  a  bad  one,  as  they  are  sure  to  work  loose 
ultimately.  A  much  better 'mode  is  to  turn  a  slight  taper 
from  6  to  8  inches  high,  and  cast  this  end  in  the  block  in 
which  it  must  subsequently  work — whether  it  be  in  a  port- 
able tripod  or  gig,  or  even  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
carriage  itself.  A  little  oil  and  fine  parting-sand  will  pro- 
tect the  smooth  iron  of  the  spindle  end  when  it  is  cast,  and 
an  absolute  fit  may  be  obtained  subsequently  by  grinding 
the  spindle  in  its  own  seat  with  oil  and  emery.  Spindles 
over  1|  inches  may  be  made  of  gas-piping,  which,  when 
once  straightened  in  the  lathe  and  taken  good  care  of 
afterwards,  are  much  easier  to  handle  than  solid  ones,  and 
just  as  good.  The  tripod  spindle  consists  of  a  central  hub 
with  three  plain  arms,  equally  divided,  radiating  therefrom; 
the  arms  have  slot-holes  cast  in  them  for  bolting  purposes. 
This  is  a  useful  tool  for  bolting  to  foundation-plates  when 
making  sugar-pans  and  other  similar  castings  in  loam  ;  and 
jt  is  beyond  all  question  the  best  for  setting  in  the  floor,  to 


Spinning  Sheet  Metal.  416  Spiral  Conveyers. 

sweep  moulds  in  green  sand.  Three  blocks  on  the  floor, 
on  which  to  rest  the  points  of  the  tripod,  with  three  other 
smaller  ones  over  them,  constitute  a  very  simple  contrivance 
to  receive  the  foundation-plate,  the  weight  of  which  pre- 
cludes all  possibility  of  shifting.  The  gig-spindle  consists 
of  a  light  square  frame,  with  legs,  centre  hub,  and  four 
handles  on  the  corners  for  carrying  it  with;  this,  with  a 
good  taper-ended  spindle,  is  extremely  useful  for  numerous 
uses  in  both  sand  and  loam.  When  the  use  of  the  spindle 
is  thoroughly  understood,  a  considerable  amount  of  pattern- 
making  may  be  dispensed  with.  See  LOAM-MOULDING. 

Spinning  Sheet  Metal.— Sheets  of  silver,  Britan- 
nia-metal, tin,  and  other  malleable  metals  are,  by  motion 
and  pressure,  caused  to  flow  or  conform  to  a  great  variety 
of  shapes.  The  process  depends  on  the  dexterity  of  the 
workman,  the  malleability  of  the  metal,  and  the  time  given 
for  the  flow  of  its  particles;  for  it  must  not  be  too  hard 
pressed,  or  the  sheet  will  fracture.  Metals  are  spun  in  a 
lathe;  a  chuck  or  mould  of  the  article  to  be  made  is 
fastened  to  the  face-plate,  and  the  disk  of  sheet  metal  is 
pressed  against  it  by  the  fixed  centre.  An  ordinary  rest 
serves  as  a  purchase  for  the  operator  to  apply  the  requisite 
pressure  with  his  pressing-tools  and  burnishers. 

Section  chucks,  consisting  of  a  central  core  and  surround- 
ing sections,  are  employed  when  the  nature  of  the  work  will 
not  permit  a  solid  chuck  to  be  used.  By  means  of  these 
almost  any  description  of  vessel  is  easily  moulded  in  sheet 
metal,  when  the  core,  being  withdrawn,  the  remaining 
sections  are  taken  out. 

Spiral  Conveyers. — A  conveying  device  composed 
of  a  central  shaft  and  surrounding  spiral  screw,  which, 
when  revolved  within  a  trough  or  pipe,  presses  out  at  the 
mouth  whatever  material  is  inserted  at  the  opposite  end, 


Spiral  Drums.  417  Spiral  Drums. 

This  mode  of  conveying  was  first  invented  by  Archimedes, 
who  was  born  at  Syracuse  in  Sicily,  about  287  B.C.  He 
used  it  for  raising  water  from  the  Nile.  See  COKVEYEBS. 

Spiral  Drums.  —  These  drums  are  used  at  some 
collieries  for  drawing  coal  from  the  mines.  The  round 
wire  rope  is  made  to  coil  in  a  spiral  groove  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  drum,  which  is  formed  by  the  frusta  of  two 
obtuse  cone-castings,  joined  together  with  their  small  ends 
outwards,  the  idea  being  to  equalize  the  work  of  the  wind- 
ing-engine throughout  the  journey;  for  when  the  load  is 
greatest,  with  the  load  at  the  bottom  and  all  the  rope  out, 
the  duty  imposed  upon  the  engine  is  limited  to  the  length 
of  the  drum's  least  circumference. 

There  are  many  ingenious  devices  for  moulding  and 
forming  the  grooves  in  these  drums;  and,  besides  those  em- 
ployed in  Europe,  we  may  mention  those  by  S.  B.  Whitney, 
Pottsville,  Pa.,  and  P.  S.  Dingey,  author  of  "Machinery 
Pattern-making,"  Chicago,  111.  While  the  several  me- 
chanical contrivances  for  regulating  pitch,  etc.,  may  differ  in 
some  minor  details,  the  general  principles  are  about  the  same 
in  all.  Mr.  Dingey's  invention  consists  substantially  of  a 
foot-step,  in  which  a  fixed  spindle  is  inserted  vertically;  the 
former  or  sweep  is  made  to  travel  up  and  down  a  screw 
by  pulling  round  the  upper  arm,  the  screw  itself  being  in- 
clined at  the  required  angle.  A  bevel-gear  is  made  fast  to 
the  spindle  at  the  lower  end,  and  the  bracket  which  carries 
the  pinion-shaft  works  loose  upon  the  spindle.  One  end 
of  the  pinion-shaft  is  carried  by  a  T-piece  that  turns  on 
the  spindle  also,  and  the  other  end  engages  the  working- 
screw  by  means  of  a  universal  joint,  the  screw  itself  being 
carried  by  adjustable  arms  at  the  top  and  bottom.  The 
nut  is  prevented  from  turning  on  the  screw  by  allowing  it 
to  work  freely  up  and  down  a  guide-shaft  secured  to  the 
upper  and  lower  arms,  exactly  parallel  with  the  screw  itself. 


Spirit.  Sponge  metal  Process. 

Motion  is  imparted  to  the  apparatus  by  drawing  the  arms 
around  ;  this  causes  the  pinion  and  screw  to  turn,  thus 
making  the  sweep  ascend  some  distance  at  each  rotation  of 
the  arms.  The  gears  determine  the  pitch  of  the  groove, 
and  different-sized  ones  can  be  applied  to  suit.  By  simply 
changing  the  bevel-wheel  and  locating  the  pinion  on  op- 
posite sides,  a  left  or  right-hand  groove  is  produced,  and, 
being  operated  by  a  universal  joint,  it  is  easily  adjusted  to 
any  angle  of  drum  required. 

Spirit. — This  name  is  usually  given  to  fluids  obtained 
by  distillation,  and  that  are  lighter  specifically  than  water. 
Essential  oil  of  turpentine  is  called  spirit  of  turpentine ; 
and  the  spirits  of  peppermint,  aniseed,  etc.,  are  thus 
denominated  because  their  essential  oils  have  been  dis- 
solved in  alcohol.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  frequently  called 
spirit  of  salts.  In  its  strictest  sense,  however,  alcohol  is 
meant  when  the  term  spirit  is  employed.  See  ALCOHOL; 
DISTILLATION. 

Spirit-lamp. — A  lamp  in  which  alcohol  is  burned. 
These  lamps  are  employed  for  their  heat  rather  than  for 
light — especially  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  air-blast 
and  other  contrivances  helping  to  make  them  more  effec- 
tive. 

Spirit-level. — A  glass  nearly  filled  with  alcohol,  just 
enough  air  being  allowed  to  remain  in  it  to  form  a  bubble. 
The  tube  is  then  closed  and  fixed  in  a  metallic  or  wooden 
case.  See  LEVEL. 

Sponge-metal  Process. — This  process  of  obtain- 
ing steel  direct  from  the  ore  consists  in  first  producing  a 
sponge  of  malleable  iron  in  vertical  brick  retorts  charged 
with  alternate  layers  of  charcoal  and  ore,  and  fired  from  the 


Spouts  for  Cupolas.  419  Spray-runner. 

outside.  It  takes  about  three  days  to  obtain  the  metallic 
sponge,  when  it  may  be  either  melted  in  crucibles,  along 
with  substances  rich  in  carbon,  for  steel;  or  it  can  be  at 
once  balled,  hammered,  cut,  piled,  reheated,  and  rolled  into 
merchant-bars.  See  CRUCIBLE-STEEL. 

Spouts  for  Cupolas. — Spouts,  as  a  rule,  are  made 
too  small.  Given  plenty  of  width,  there  is  room  to  get  at  the 
breast,  and  added  depth  lowers  the  stream — a  desideratum 
when  a  crooked  tap  is  made.  They  should  always  be  set 
so  that  the  bottom  will  be  three  inches  below  the  sand-bed 
of  the  cupola.  A  slight  incline  induces  motion  of  the 
stream.  While  it  is  possible  to  obtain  good  work  from 
spouts  prepared  with  sand  each  heat,  preference  must  be 
given  to  those  made  with  an  internal  flange  on  the  front 
end  corresponding  to  the  shape  of  the  spout  when  formed  ; 
this  flange  serves  to  hold  securely  the  fire-bricks  with 
which  the  inside  may  be  built,  thus  making  an  imperish- 
able channel  close  up  to  the  breast.  A  slight  rub  over 
with  fire-clay  and  a  coat  of  blacking  completes  the  opera- 
tions at  this  point.  The  bricks  make  a  safe  abutment  for 
the  breast,  and  when  the  sand-bottom  is  made  the  portion 
immediately  adjacent  to  the  fire-brick  bottom  of  the  spout 
can  be  made  good  with  daubing  mixture  stiffened  well 
with  the  fire-sand.  See  BREAST-HOLE;  SAND-BED;  CU- 
POLA; DAUBING. 

Spray-runner. — A  long  main  runner,  having  sprays 
that  connect  with  the  mould.  If  one  ingate  be  insufficient 
to  distribute  the  metal  equally  hot  to  all  parts  of  the  mould, 
it  is  possible  by  this  means  to  introduce  the  metal  at 
numerous  other  parts,  without  any  increase  of  the  number 
of  ladles  employed,  by  simply  extending  the  main  channel, 
and  connecting  with  the  mould  at  such  parts;  taking  care 
that  the  size  of  the  channel  be  proportionate  to  the  sprays 


Sprig.  420  Sprue. 

flowing  out  from  it.  By  this  method  thin  plates  are  suc- 
cessfully run  from  one  or  two  ladles  of  hot  metal,  which 
otherwise  would  require  four  or  even  six.  For  work  that 
is  rolled  over,  these  sprays  are  best  when  formed  by  a 
pattern  and  set  against  the  pattern  before  ramming  the 
uowel.  See  KUNNEE;  GATE. 


Sprig. — A  small  nail.     See  NAILS. 

..  Spring  Chaplet. — A  form  of  stud,  usually  made  by 
bending  a  short  piece  of  hoop-iron  so  that  the  open  end 
serves  to  spring  back,  and  hold  in  place  some  loose  core  or 
piece  of  mould.  Their  strength  must  be  in  proportion  to 
the  pressure  to  be  exerted,  and  some  consideration  should 
'be  given  to  the  possibility  of  their  melting  in  places  where 
there  is  a  strong  current  of  molten  metal.  See  CHAPLETS. 

Spring  Pattern-lifter. — A  steel  device  for  draw- 
ing very  small  patterns  from  the  sand.  Two  fine  stems 
connect  with  a  spring  which  exerts  its  power  in  an  out- 
ward direction,  thus  spreading  the  stems  with  force  in 
the  small  hole  made  to  receive  it;  after  the  manner  of 
tweezers.  See  SPIKE. 

Sprinkling  -  pot.  —  This  is  simply  a  gardener's 
watering-pot,  with  a  rose  for  sprinkling  the  water  when 
it  is  desired  to  moisten  the  sand  precisely.  A  special  class 
of  goods  for  the  foundry  are  made  of  galvanized  iron  and 
copper,  very  strong,  and  with  double  bottoms.  The  regular 
dealers  in  foundry-supplies  have  all  sizes  in  stock. 

Sprue. — The  small  vertical  runner  usually  formed  by 
bench  and  snap  moulders.  See  GATE -SPOOL. 


Square.  421  Stains  for  Metals. 

Square. — A  mechanic's  square  consists  of  two  pieces 
of  wood  or  metal  at  exact  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 
used  either  for  testing  or  describing  work.  In  geom- 
etry, a  square  is  described  as  a  four-sided  rectilin^jQgure, 
of  which  all  the  angles  are  right  angles 
equal. 

Squeezer. — See  KOTARY  SQUEEZER. 

Stains  for  Metals.  —  Metals  may 
bronzed  almost  any  color  by  simply  immersing  the  articl 
in  a  suitable  liquid  bronze.  The  action  is  in  most  cases 
immediate.  Brass  may  be  stained :  brown  and  intermediate 
shades  to  black,  by  immersing  in  a  liquid  composed  of 
water  1  pint,  nitrate  of  iron  5  drachms ;  black — water  1 
pint,  permuriate  of  iron  2  pints,  muriate  of  arsenic  10 
ounces;  broiun  to  red — water  1  pint,  nitrate  of  iron  16 
drams,  hyposulphite  of  soda  16  drams;  steel  color — water  1 
pint,  muriate  of  arsenic  1  ounce;  yellow  to  red — water  1 
pint,  tersulphide  of  arsenic  30  grains,  pearl-ash  solution  6 
drams;  blue — water  1  pint,  hyposulphite  of  soda  20  drams; 
orange — water  1  pint,  potash  solution  of  sulphur  1  dram; 
olive-green — water  2  pints,  permuriate  of  iron  1  pint. 

Copper  may  be  stained :  brown  to  black  by  immersing  in  a 
liquid  composed  of  water  1  pint,  nitrate  of  iron  5  drams; 
brown  to  drab — water  1  pint,  nitrate  of  iron  5  drams,  sul- 
phocyanide  of  potassium  2  drams;  red — water  1  pint,  sul- 
phide of  antimony  2  drams,  pearl-ash  1  ounce ;  red  to  black 
— water  1  pint,  sulphur  1  dram,  pearl-ash  1  ounce;  steel 
color — water  1  pint,  muriate  of  arsenic  1  dram ;  the  liquid 
in  this  case  must  be  heated  to  180°. 

Zinc  may  be  stained:  purple  by  boiling  in  logwood  infu- 
sion; red,  by  boiling  in  ganmcine  infusion;  black — immerse 
in  water  1  pint,  nitrate  of  iron  5  drams ;  copper  color — water 
1  pint,  sulphate  of  copper  8  drams,  hyposulphite  of  soda  8 


Stake.  422  Stamping  Metals. 

drams  (this  will  need  some  agitation) ;  dark  gray — water  1 
pint,  protochloride  of  tin  1  dram,  sulphocyanide  of  potas- 
sium 1  dram;  green  to  gray — water  2,  muriate  of  iron  1. 
See  PICKLING;  DIPPING;  LACQUERING. 

Stake. — A  foundry  device  for  guiding  flasks,  draw- 
backs, and  other  portions  of  a  mould,  independent  of  either 
pins,  slides,  or  hinges,  and  for  all  of  which  modes  the  stake 
is  a  substitute.  For  instance,  a  cope  is  employed  to  cover 
the  mould  which  is  bedded  in  the  sand  floor;  a  stake  driven 
into  the  floor  at  each  corner  against  a  suitably  provided 
guide-piece  furnishes  the  means  for  closing  exactly  similar 
to  an  ordinary  slide  in  a  flask  part.  Iron  stakes  close  bet- 
ter than  wood,  and  may  be  from  1  inch  to  2  inches  square 
or  round.  If  not  firm  enough  when  driven  down  and 
rammed,  they  are  readily  stiffened  by  driving  a  short 
wooden  one  of  larger  diameter  behind.  See  FLASKS;  PIN. 

Stalactites. — Water  containing  carbonate  of  lime  in 
solution  deposits  a  portion  of  it  on  free  exposure  to  the  air. 
This  is  often  seen  in  calcareous  caverns.  The  water,  as  it 
trickles  from  fissures  in  the  roof,  deposits  its  carbonate 
until  pendent  masses  form  there.  These  are  called  stalac- 
tites. Where  the  water  strikes  on  falling,  other  forms 
similar  to  those  above  gradually  grow  on  the  floor,  and  are 
called  stalagmites.  When  these  meet  and  unite  they  form 
a  column. 

Stamping  Metals. — Many  kinds  of  metal-work  for- 
merly bent  into  shape  by  the  hammer  and  punch  are  now 
struck  into  shape  by  means  of  a  pair  of  dies — one  relief, 
the  other  intaglio, — between  which  the  metal  is  pressed. 
Articles  of  considerable  size  are  now  made  in  hydraulic 
presses  by  means  of  a  number  of  graduated  dies,  each  pair 
coming  gradually  nearer  the  desired  shape,  but  none  of 


Stamp-mill.  423  Starch. 

them  making  an  impression   deep   enough  to   strain  the 
metal. 

Stamp-mill  is  used  chiefly  for  crushing  or  bruising 
ores,  and  consists  of  several  vertical  shafts  which  are  made 
to  descend  with  force  by  either  water  or  steam  power.  See 
ORES. 

Stands  for  Moulds  are  contrivances  for  blocking 
parts  of  moulds  above  the  floor.  Too  often  these  are 
simply  a  makeshift.  An  excellent  stand  is  readily  made 
by  moulding  an  open-sand  ring  about  18  to  24  inches  di- 
ameter, in  which  are  cast  three  or  more  vertical  rods  with 
their  top  ends  leaning  inwards,  so  that  when  the  ring  has 
been  cast  the  whole  may  be  reversed,  and  the  loose  ends 
cast  into  another  open-sand  mould  about  6  or  8  inches 
diameter  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  bind  all  the  rods  firmly 
together.  There  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  usefulness  of 
these  stands,  as  they  may  be  made  to  any  height  convenient 
at  a  slight  expense. 

Starch  is  found  in  the  grains,  seeds,  roots,  pith,  and 
bark  of  plants.  It  is  a  snow-white,  glistening  powder  when 
pure;  its  round  or  oval  grains  varying  in  size  from  T±-g-  to 
T-oV -Q  °^  an  incn  in  diameter.  The  granules  of  potato  are 
larger  than  those  of  rice  or  wheat.  Starch  is  insoluble  in 
cold  water,  alcohol,  or  ether,  but  swells  up  and  is  converted 
into  a  paste  in  water  containing  2  per  cent  of  alkali.  If 
heated  in  water  to  140°  the  grains  swell  and  burst,  produc- 
ing gelatinous  starch,  or  amadin.  Starch  from  grain  is 
prepared  by  mixing  the  meal  with  water  to  a  paste  and 
washing  the  mass  upon  a  sieve  ;  a  white  insoluble  sub- 
stance called  gluten  is  then  left.  This  gluten  in  wheat-flour 
is  extremely  tenacious  and  elastic,  and  this  is  why  free 
sands  are  made  adhesive  and  strong  by  its  use.  See  FLOUR; 
GLUTEN. 


Statuary-bronze.  424  Statue-founding. 

Statuary -bronze. — A  bronze  composed  of  copper 
9  and  tin  1  is  sometimes  employed  for  statuary,  but  large 
statues  are  seldom  cast  of  these  two  metals  alone.  For  this 
reason  it  would  be  more  correct  to  call  the  several  alloys 
statuary  brass.  A  brass  used  by  the  Egyptians  consisted 
of  brass  2,  copper  1.  Grecian  and  Roman,  brass  was  an 
alloy  of  brass  2,  copper  1,  silver  -fa,  lead  -fV  The  French 
sculptor  Kellar,  1669,  used  copper  326.43,  tin  25.35,  zinc 
4.21,  lead  1.  Modern  alloys  are  composed  chiefly  of  copper 
2,  brass  1.  For  general  artistic  purposes  more  zinc  and  tin 
are  added,  as  they  answer  as  well,  are  more  easily  worked, 
and  are  cheaper.  See  STATUE-FOUNDING. 

Statue-founding.— Whether  the  model  from  which 
bronze  cast  is  to  be  taken  be  of  wax,  clay,  plaster,  or  any 
other  material,  the  customary  mode  of  constructing  the 
mould  by  the  cire-perdue  or  waste  wax-process  is  substan- 
tially as  follows:  The  outside  mould  or  matrix  is  first  ob- 
tained in  convenient  plaster  sections.  The  sections,  either 
separate  or  together,  according  to  convenience,  are  thick- 
nessed  with  wax,  and  secured  in  their  respective  positions 
to  form  the  mould,  into  which  a  core  composition,  usually 
consisting  of  a  creamy  paste  made  from  2  parts  of  brick- 
dust  and  1  part  plaster  of  Paris,  with  water,  is  introduced. 
Should  the  core  be  massive  or  complicated,  a  skeleton  core- 
iron  is  constructed,  and  such  other  preparations  are  made 
as  may  be  needed  to  convey  away  the  gases  therefrom  at 
the  time  of  casting.  When  the  core  composition  has  set, 
the  sections  of  mould  are  carefully  taken  off,  leaving  the 
wax  thickness  adhering  to  the  core — a  true  representation 
of  the  original  model,  which,  when  made  perfect  at  such 
parts  as  may  have  been  injured,  is  then  ready  to  receive  a 
thin  coat  of  very  fine  composition,  usually  applied  with  a 
brush,  over  which  another  coat  more  porous  than  the  first 
is  laid,  and  again  a  subsequent  backing  of  a  very  open  nature 


Statue-founding.  425  Sto,t-ue-founding. 

is  applied  until  the  requisite  stiffness  is  acquired.  Coarse 
composition  alone  serves  this  purpose  when  the  objects 
are  small,  for  larger  ones  bricks,  loam,  etc.,  are  often 
employed.  When  core  and  matrix  have  been  thus  con- 
structed, heat  is  applied,  and  the  wax  forthwith  evacuates 
the  mould,  escaping  at  the  lowest  points  of  every  portion 
of  the  figure  through  holes  previously  provided  for  that 
purpose.  When  the  mould  has  been  thoroughly  dried,  the 
space  originally  occupied  by  the  wax  is  filled  with  metal  by 
means  of  gates  which  are  suitably  disposed  when  the  outer 
mould  is  constructed.  Small  statuettes  and  other  figures 
are  very  easily  made  in  the  foundries  by  first  carving  a 
composition  core,  around  which  the  sculptor  lays  a  wax 
thickness  and  models  his  figure.  A  wire  or  perhaps  two 
wires  are  then  thrust  through  the  figure,  leaving  the  ends 
projecting;  it  is  then  placed  within  an  iron  frame  or  box, 
and  the  surrounding  space  filled  with  composition.  When 
this  has  become  hard,  the  wax  is  made  to  pass  out  by  the 
application  of  heat,  as  before  explained,  the  core  remaining 
as  a  permanent  fixture  by  reason  of  the  projecting  wires, 
which  are  firmly  imbedded  in  the  matrix. 

Hollow  casts  in  zinc,  lead,  and  tin  are  obtained  by  filling 
sectional  brass  moulds  with  molten  metal  at  the  open  end, 
and  allowing  sufficient  time  for  a  shell  to  congeal  on  the 
surface,  when  the  remainder  is  allowed  to  escape  by  invert- 
ing the  mould. 

For  statuary,  as  above  described,  the  sculptor  produces 
his  casting  alone;  but  when  the  metal  employed  is  cast  iron, 
he  must  secure  the  services  of  a  competent  moulder,  who 
first  builds  a  core  in  loam,  around  which  the  sculptor  fash- 
ions his  figure  in  clay. 

The  moulder  then  proceeds  to  form  a  cope  in  as  many 
divisions  as  are  needed  for  obtaining  a  perfect  impression 
of  the  figure,  by  the  processes  common  to  loam  or  sand 
moulding.  These  several  divisions  being  lifted  away,  the 


Steady  pin.  4$ 6  Steam  hammer. 

thickness  is  removed,  core  and  cope  duly  finished  and  dried, 
and  subsequently  closed  together  again,  and  the  mould 
cast. 

Many  colossal  statues  are  made  in  sections  and  pinned 
together  over  a  stout  iron  or  steel  frame,  and  numbers  of 
large  plaster  models  are  now  sawn  into  convenient  sections 
for  moulding  in  sand,  and  cast  either  green  or  dry,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  See  PLASTER-CAST;  CIRE-PERDUE; 
MODELLING;  STATUARY-BRONZE. 

Steady-pill.  —  An  extra-long  box-pin  or  slide,  for 
maintaining  a  true  vertical  position  when  a  cope  with 
a  deep  straight  lift  is  being  raised.  Also,  a  long,  straight 
attachment  to  a  pattern,  or  card  of  patterns,  that  extends 
some  distance  below  in  order  to  assure  a  true  horizontal 
and  vertical  position  during  the  process  of  drawing  from 
the  sand.  The  pin  that  is  fixed  on  a  pattern  directly  over 
where  it  is  intended  that  a  core  shall  protrude,  to  form  a 
hole  through  the  cope  into  which  the  top  end  may  be 
guided,  and  thus  keep  it  in  a  horizontal  position,  as  well  as 
permitting  a  vent  to  be  carried  off  safely,  is  also  termed  a 
steady-pin.  The  wood  or  iron  projections  for  guiding  the 
halves  of  patterns  and  holding  them  to  match  are  often 
called  by  that  name.  See  PIN;  FLASK. 

Steam-crane. — A  crane  operated  by  a  steam-engine. 
See  CRANES. 

Steam  •  hammer.  —  This  powerful  hammering- 
machine  was  originally  invented  by  Mr.  Nasmyth,  Patri- 
croft,  England,  in  1842,  and  is  used  for  the  purpose  of 
beating  malleable  materials  into  the  required  form,  etc. 
In  its  original  form  it  consisted  of  an  inverted  cylinder,  to 
whose  piston  an  iron  block  which  formed  the  hammer-head 
was  attached.  This  hammer  was  raised  by  steam  enter- 


Steam-jet  Cupola.  427  Steam-jet  Cupola. 

ing  below  the    piston,   and   the  hammer  fell   when   the 
steam  was  allowed  to  escape. 

Steam -jet  Cupola,  patented  by  Herbertz,  who 
claims  it  as  one  of  the  most  important  metallurgic  inven- 
tions of  modern  times.  He  further  says  "that  it  will  surely 
have  a  great  future  by  reason  of  its  enormous  advantages 
over  the  systems  now  in  use.  It  is  not  merely  an  improve- 
ment of  the  present  system,  but  a  complete  revolution. 

"It  naturally  follows  that  there  will  have  to  be  a  complete 
change  in  the  manner  of  doing  business  wherever  smelting- 
furnaces  are  used.  Up  to  the  present  time  all  cupolas 
were  worked  by  blast-air.  To  produce  this,  complicated 
machinery  was  necessary,  and  large  and  expensive  build- 
ings. A  hearth  solidly  built  in  masonry  was  indispensable, 
and  this  had  to  be  hermetically  sealed  on  account  of  the 
heavy  interior  pressure. 

"  The  steam- jet  cupola  is  the  exact  reverse  of  this.  It 
works  by  means  of  atmospheric  air  breathed  or  sucked  into 
the  furnace  by  a  jet  of  steam  placed  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  s l.i aft.  It  has  a  movable  hearth,  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  will,  and  which  forms  with  the  shaft  an  annular 
opening  by  which  the  air  needed  for  combustion  is  intro- 
duced. This  cupola  requires  no  motive  force,  and  the 
vacuum  produced  in  the  shaft  by  the  suction  allows  every 
stage  of  the  smelting  process  to  be  observed  by  means  of 
valves  and  tubes  placed  at  different  heights,  thereby  fur- 
nishing a  convenient  means  of  controlling  the  work. 

"  The  furnace  and  the  hearth  are  rendered  independent, 
the  work  may  be  carried  on  under  perfect  control,  and 
necessary  repairs  can  be  easily  and  promptly  attended  to — 
a  most  embarrassing  thing  in  the  old  furnaces  with  solid 
mured  hearth. 

"The  workings  of  the  steam -jet  cupola  can  be  divided, 
accordingly,  into  the  following  groups  and  sub-groups: 


Steam-winch.  428  Steel. 

"I.  Smelting  of  metals: 

1.  Smelting  of  pig  iron; 

2.  Smelting  of  steel  and  malleable  cast  iron; 

3.  Smelting  of  other  metals  and  metallic  ores. 
"  II.  Production  of  metals  by  the  reduction  of  their 

ores  or  slags: 

1.  Production  of  pig  iron; 

2.  Production  of  lead ; 

3.  Production  of  raw  copper,  copper-scoria,  and 

copper-slate. 

"  III.  Calcination  of  ore?  and  minerals,  such  as  lime, 
dolomite,  malachite,  etc.,  for  instance,  minerals, 
demanding  the  expelling  of  carbonic  acid;  also, 
for  smelting  glass." 

Steam-winch. — A  hoisting-crane  to  which  a  steam- 
engine  is  attached,  the  power  acting  on  the  winding-drum 
by  intermediate  gearing,  or  direct  from  the  piston-rod. 
See  CKANES. 

Stearic  Acid.— See  OILS. 
Steatite.— See  SOAPSTONE. 

Steel. — This  wonderful  modification  of  iron  is  a  com- 
pound of  the  metal  with  from  .833  to  1.67  per  cent  of 
carbon.  In  its  properties  steel  combines  the  fusibility  of 
cast  iron  with  the  malleability  of  wrought  iron.  Its  value 
for  cutting  instruments,  springs,  etc.,  depends  upon  its 
quality  of  being  tempered.  When  heated  to  redness  and 
plunged  into  cold  water  it  becomes  hard  enough  to  scratch 
glass;  if  again  heated  and  cooled  slowly,  it  becomes  as  soft 
almost  as  ordinary  iron,  and  between  these  two  extremes 
any  required  degree  of  hardness  is  obtained.  As  the  metal 
declines  in  temperature,  the  thin  film  of  oxide  upon  its  sur- 


Steel  Bronze.  429  Steel  Castings. 

face  constantly  changes  its  color,  and  it  is  by  these  tints  that 
the  workman  is  guided.  Thus,  a  straw-color  indicates  the 
degree  of  hardness  for  razors,  a  deep  blue  for  sword-blades, 
saws,  and  watch-springs.  Steel  receives  a  higher  polish 
than  iron,  and  has  less  tendency  to  rust.  Nitric  acid  cor- 
rodes it,  and  leaves  the  carbon  as  a  dark-gray  stain.  For 
the  various  processes  of  manufacture  see  INDIA  STEEL; 
PUDDLE -STEEL;  BLISTER- STEEL;  CRUCIBLE  OR  CAST 
STEEL  ;  BESSEMER  STEEL  ;  OPEN-HEARTH  OR  SIEMENS- 
MARTIN  STEEL;  CHROMIUM  STEEL;  DAMASCUS  STEEL; 
etc. 

Steel  Bronze  is  the  invention  of  Col.  Uchatius,  of 
the  Austrian  arsenals.  It  is  simply  a  substitute  for  steel 
in  the  manufacture  of  guns.  The  alloy  consists  of  about 
90  copper  and  10  tin,  and  is  cast  in  an  iron  mould  round 
a  forged  copper  core.  The  resultant  casting,  after  being 
turned  and  bored,  is  subjected  to  a  process  of  opening  and 
elongation  by  means  of  a  conical  steel-plug  forced  through 
by  hydraulic  power,  resulting,  it  is  claimed,  in  a  tube  of 
equal  quality  to  the  best  steel  tubes.  See  BRONZE. 

Steel  Castings. — The  chief  desideratum  in  melting 
steel  in  an  open-hearth  furnace  when  the  metal  is  intended 
for  castings  is  to  melt  as  hot  as  fuel  will  make  it  and  keep 
oxidization  as  low  as  possible  in  the  bath,  by  admitting 
only  just  enough  air  to  insure  thorough  combustion.  The 
charge  usually  consists  of  pig  iron  containing  about  8  per 
cent  of  manganese.  Spiegeleisen  containing  perhaps  14 
per  cent  is  sometimes  used,  along  with  enough  of  other  pig 
free  from  manganese  to  procure  that  percentage  in  the 
resultant  mixture. 

The  quality  of  steel  required  determines  subsequent 
operations  for  softening,  refining,  etc.,  which  is  accom- 
plished by  additions  to  the  bath  of  such  materials  as  will 


Steel  Castings.  430  Steel  Castings. 

favor  the  change  desired.  Various  kinds  of  scrap,  blooms, 
etc.,  are  introduced  in  a  semi-molten  condition,  so  as  to 
prevent  any  sudden  reduction  of  temperature  in  the  bath. 
Tests  are  made  by  dipping  and  pouring  a  small  ingot 
which  while  red-hot  is  hammered  down  to  a  thin  plate, 
and  by  its  resistance  to  flexure,  etc.,  indicates  the  con- 
dition of  the  metal  and  its  fitness  for  casting.  In  some 
steel-foundries  this  knowledge  is  obtained  by  cooling  the 
test-piece  in  water  and  breaking  it  on  an  anvil.  When 
the  metal  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  soft  and  pure,  the 
final  ingredients  for  converting  it  into  steel,  consisting 
generally  of  a  specially  manufactured  pig  iron  containing 
manganese  and  silicon  (silico-spiegel),  is  introduced,  along 
with  more  or  less  ferro-manganese.  The  whole  is  then 
stirred  well  with  a  rabble,  and  if  found  correct  is  ready  for 
tapping. 

Many  small  castings  are  sold  for  steel  that  have  been 
simply  cast  from  good  white  pig  iron  very  low  in  phospho- 
rus and  silicon,  and  afterwards  annealed  in  hematite  ore 
or  smithy  scales,  after  the  manner  of  malleable-iron  cast- 
ings. See  MALLEABLE-IRON  CASTINGS. 

An  opinion  that  gains  favor  rapidly  is  that  the  Bessemer 
process  of  manufacturing  steel  will  be  ultimately  recognized 
as  superior  to  the  open-hearth.  Even  now,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  hot  metal  of  any  desired  mixture  may  be  obtained 
from  the  converter  more  frequently  throughout  the  day 
than  is  possible  in  the  open-hearth,  which  is  limited  to 
about  three  heats  a  day,  many  firms  are  working  a  small 
Bessemer  converter  for  the  lighter  class  of  castings. 

As  steel  castings  must  be  poured  from  the  bottom  of  the 
ladle  by  means  of  a  stopper,  just  as  ingots  are  filled  (see 
INGOTS),  there  is  practically  no  difficulty  in  delivering  the 
metal  clean,  as  the  slag  is  all  held  on  the  surface  above; 
but,  owing  to  the  liability  of  leakage  when  the  stopper  is 
damaged,  it  requires  considerable  dexterity  to  fill  a  number 


Steel  Castings.  431  Steel  Castings. 

of  small  moulds  successfully  by  this  means.     The  larger 
ones  are  simple  enough. 

If  all  the  runner  system  cannot  be  contained  within 
the  flask,  and  the  mould  must  necessarily  be  rammed  in 
the  pit,  runner-cores  made  specially  from  very  refractory 
materials  are  set  against  the  gate  apertures  and  con- 
tinued one  upon  another  up  to  the  surface,  where  suitable 
arrangements  are  made  for  receiving  the  stream  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ladle.  By  this  means  the  molten  steel  is 
prevented  from  encountering  the  non-refractory  materials 
composing  the  pit-sand  and  runner  as  well  as  casting  is 
contained  in  a  dry-sand  mould. 

Hot  as  it  may  appear  when  melted,  steel  is  by  no  means 
as  fluid  as  cast  iron,  for  which  reason  the  runners  and  gates 
.  must  always  be  made  proportionately  larger;  but,  like  cast 
iron,  it  is  always  easier  on  the  mould  when  the  metal  enters 
from  the  bottom.  Of  course  it  is  necessary  in  very  large 
castings,  whether  cast  vertical  or  slanting,  that  additional 
runners  be  placed  near  the  top  also. 

Risers  on  steel  castings  should  be  markedly  heavy  in 
proportion,  and  preference  should  be  given  to  a  position 
that  will  favor  an  equal  distribution  of  the  liquid  pressure 
exerted;  yet  the  highest  heavy  portions  of  the  casting  are 
properly  chosen  as  a  rule.  An  important  feature  in  these 
heavy  risers  is  to  give  them  taper  sufficient  to  favor  an 
easy  withdrawal  from  the  hard  sand  when  contraction 
commences;  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  draw  the  casting 
apart. 

To  discover  a  facing  that  would  successfully  resist  the 
intense  heat  of  molten  steel  and  produce  a  smooth  casting 
like  cast  iron  has  been  the  aim  of  very  many  who  have 
engaged  in  this  business.  Very  naturally  such  substances 
as  were  commonly  employed  for  furnace  construction, 
melting-crucibles,  etc.,  were  among  the  first  employed. 
Pulverized  fire-brick,  with  some  clay  and  a  wash  over  with 


Steel  Castings.  432  Steel  Castings. 

brick-dust  and  water,  was  one  of  the  earliest  facings  used. 
Moulds  made  from  sands  or  other  mixtures  that  are  stif- 
fened with  flour  are  apt  to  crumble  away  at  the  slightest 
touch  if  the  heat  applied  to  dry  them  has  been  sufficient  to 
burn  the  flour;  and  this  is  why  molasses,  which  makes 
equally  as  good  a  bond  if  intimately  ground  into  the  sand, 
is  now  preferred.  A  ferric  clay  found  in  Switzerland, 
containing  oxide  of  iron  40  per  cent,  graphite  2  per  cent,  is 
employed  as  a  facing  in  some  foundries.  It  dries  exceed- 
ingly hard,  will  take  about  one  third  silica  sand,  and  makes 
good  moulds  and  cores  and  moulds  for  light  work.  It  may 
be  mixed  with  water  for  loam.  The  chief  objection  to  its 
use  is  its  extreme  hardness,  which  compels  the  use  of  softer 
material  wherever  contraction  is  likely  to  be  intercepted. 
In  some  parts  coke,  old  fire-bricks,  crucibles,  the  artificial 
graphite  from  gas-retorts,  and  many  substances  of  a  like 
nature,  constitute  the  chief  materials  used  for  mixing  with 
the  sand  employed  for  facing. 

One  of  the  best  facings  for  ordinary  steel  castings  is 
simple  silica  sand  (the  purer  the  better)  and  molasses, 
brought  to  the  proper  consistency  by  grinding  well  to- 
gether. 

To  obtain  a  core  that  will  meet  every  requirement  in 
very  large  castings  is  still  an  unsolved  problem;  for  if 
a  mixture  be  made  with  the  softer  material,  to  favor  easy 
extraction,  it  yields  to  heat  and  pressure,  and  invariably 
forms  a  mixed  mass  of  steel  and  sand,  while  the  harder  and 
more  refractory  material  bakes  almost  solid.  Ordinarily 
the  silica  sand  mixed  with  coal-tar  or  molasses  is  the  best. 
The  artificial  hardness  imparted  by  these  ingredients  is 
dissipated  by  the  intense  heat,  the  sand  is  again  friable, 
and  it  falls  out. 

Shrinkage  in  steel  amounts  to  more  than  double  that  of 
good  cast  iron — from  T3¥  to  ^  in  a  foot.  This,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  more  rapid  cooling  compared  with  cast  iron, 


Steel  Castings.  433  Steel  Castings. 

necessitates  a  plentiful  use  of  ashes,  or  their  equivalent,  in 
both  cores  and  moulds,  at  such  places  as  would  be  likely 
to  interfere  with  a  free  and  uninterrupted  contraction 
of  the  whole.  If  liberty  cannot  be  obtained  by  this  pro- 
vision, then  the  hard  mould  must  be  weakened  by  digging 
away  the  sand  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  whatever  is 
being  obstructed,  or  perhaps  lifting  the  casting  out  of 
the  flask  entirely  and  covering  it  with  sand  or  hot 
ashes.  Sometimes  this  is  done,  and  the  casting,  instead 
of  being  covered,  is  at  once  consigned  to  the  annealing 
oven.  Castings  that  are  well  proportioned  seldom  betray 
the  slightest  sign  of  cracking  when  the  latter  method  is 
adopted. 

In  extreme  cases,  where  joining  portions  are  liable  to  be 
separated  through  a  more  than  ordinarily  rapid  contrac- 
tion, the  parts  apt  to  yield  may  be  thrust  forward  by  means 
of  a  set-screw  in  the  side  of  the  flask,  acting  upon  a  plate 
previously  set  in  the  mould  for  that  purpose. 

Various  means  are  employed  to  hold  straggling  parts  of 
steel  castings  to  the  main  body.  There  being  little  or  no 
fibre  to  the  metal,  they  snap  off  short  at  the  least  provoca- 
tion ;  every  sharp  angle  in  the  mould  is  a  source  of  danger 
on  this  account.  It  is  customary,  therefore,  to  connect 
each  of  these  weak  extending  parts  to  the  body  of  the  cast- 
ing by  a  bracket  or  brackets,  which  are  subsequently  re- 
moved; angles  of  every  description  are  eradicated  by  strict 
attention  to  filleting,  or  rounding  every  corner. 

Cast-iron  chills  also  serve  a  good  purpose  on  these  cast- 
ings, for,  besides  imparting  a  smooth  surface,  without  chill, 
wherever  they  are  placed,  they  at  once  absorb  the  heat, 
congeal  the  surface,  and  thus  in  a  very  simple  manner  pre- 
vent contraction  fractures  in  many  instances. 

Fins  cut  at  certain  parts  will  sometimes  induce  almost 
immediately  congelation,  and  prevent  rupture  by  the  added 
strength  of  the  comparatively  cold  metal,  which  extends  its 


Steel- faced  Castings.  434  Steel-press. 

strengthening  influence,  more  or  less,  into  the  casting  by 
reason  of  the  prematurely  local  shrinkage  created. 

Not  unfrequently  parts  that  are  dissimilar  in  magnitude 
are  drawn  apart  by  the  antecedent  shrinkage  of  the  thinner 
body  of  metal.  This  too  may  often  be  prevented  by  at- 
taching a  thin  connecting  web  or  webs,  extending  some 
distance  beyond  the  point  of  junction,  either  way  ;  the 
web  being  thinner,  sets  more  rapidly  than  either  of  the 
other  divisions,  and  holds  them  together  by  reason  of  a 
prior  contraction. 

Steel-faced  Castings. — A  face  of  steel  may,  under 
favorable  conditions,  be  given  to  castings  in  iron,  by  mak- 
ing the  steel  red-hot,  and  placing  it  within  a  dry-sand 
mould.  If  possible,  drop  the  molten  iron  immediately 
over  the  steel  to  be  welded,  by  runners  sufficient  to  cover 
the  piece  and  effect  a  junction  quickly  ;  otherwise  the 
process  is  rendered  inoperative  by  the  metal  simply  run- 
ning over  it  and  out  at  the  escape,  at  a  gradually  decreas- 
ing temperature — just  so  much  waste.  A  very  superior 
union  is  always  effected  when  the  body  of  cast  iron  is  large, 
the  steel  being  under  the  influence  of  fluid  metal  for  a  less 
space  of  time  in  proportion  as  the  body  becomes  thinner. 
Sometimes  these  junctions  are  effected,  apparently,  by 
forcing  a  large  quantity  of  molten  metal  through  the 
mould ;  but  if  the  steel  is  not  subjected  to  the  abrading 
influence  of  a  direct  fall,  it  can  hardly  be  expected  that  a 
solid  weld  will  be  made. 

Steel  Furnace. — See  CRUCIBLE  STEEL;  BESSEMER 
STEEL  ;  SIEMENS-MARTIN  STEEL  ;  OPEN-HEARTH  STEEL  ; 
STEEL  CASTINGS. 

Steel-press. — Metallic  moulds  receive  the  molten 
steel  through  suitable  runners,  after  which  mechanical 


Steering  bar.  435  Stereotyping. 

means  are  employed  for  exerting  a  pressure  on  the  fluid 
metal  to  force  out  the  gases  and  give  greater  density  to 
the  steel.  See  PRESSING  FLUID  STEEL. 

Steering-bar  is  generally  a  long  iron  shank,  swaged 
on  one  end  to  fit  either  a  round  or  square  shaft  which  pro- 
jects beyond  the  bale  of  a  geared  or  other  crane  ladle,  on 
the  opposite  side  to  the  man  who  pours,  to  steer  the  ladle 
during  the  operation.  Ladles  are  also  steered  with  a  long 
rod  having  two  projecting  fingers  forged  at  the  end  at  right 
angles  with  the  rod.  These  clip  the  bale  or  beam  of  the 
ladle,  and  thus  control  or  steer  it.  See  LADLES. 

Step-metal.— See  ALLOYS;  BRASS  MIXTURES. 

Stereotype-metal.  —  See  STEREOTYPING;  TYPE- 
METAL. 

Stereotyping.— The  art  of  obtaining  metal  plates 
about  ^  inch  in  thickness  from  pages  of  type  previously 
set  up  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The  art  was  invented  by 
William  Ged  of  Edinburgh,  1725.  The  forms  of  type  are 
first  laid  on  a  smooth  table,  face  upwards,  oiled,  and  after 
the  frame  or  flask  which  regulates  the  depth  of  plaster  has 
been  placed  around,  the  surface  is  covered  and  swept  off 
even.  This  cast  is  then  dried,  and  afterwards  turned  face 
down  on  an  iron  floater,  and  the  whole  is  placed  within  the 
dipping -pan y  the  lid  of  which  fits  the  pan  except  at  each 
corner,  where  provision  is  made  for  the  entrance  of  the 
fluid  metal.  A  clamp  stretching  across  the  pan  serves  to 
bind  all  together,  and  furnishes  means  for  suspending  and 
lowering  into  the  bath,  where  it  is  immersed  well  down, 
to  create  a  pressure,  which  causes  the  metal  to  spread  and 
fill  every  cavity  precisely,  the  thickness  being  regulated  by 
an  adjustment  between  the  plaster-cast  and  floating-plate. 
The  metal  used  for  this  purpose  is  various;  some  use  type- 


Sterro  metal.  436  Stewart's  Rapid  Cupola. 

metal;  others,  lead  100,  antimony  15;  and,  again,  lead  4, 
antimony  1,  tin  1;  but  generally  the  alloys  contain  from  4 
to  8  lead  to  1  of  antimony,  according  to  hardness  required. 
It  must  be  understood  that  antimony  acts  to  neutralize 
the  contraction  of  lead,  and  causes  the  alloy  to  give  a  cor- 
rect impression  of  the  mould.  See  TYPE-METAL. 

Sterro  -  metal.— A  gun-metal  alloy  of  remarkable 
strength  invented  by  Baron  Kosthorn,  Vienna.  See  DELTA- 
METAL. 

Stewart's  Rapid  Cupola. — This  cupola  embodies 
the  principle  of  tall  stacks  and  small  diameter,  which  now 
seem  to  be  gaining  favor  as  fuel-savers,  being,  according  to 
reports,  far  more  economical  than  low  ones  of  large  diam- 
eter, which  are  now  so  common  almost  everywhere.  The 
principal  dimensions  of  a  Stewart  Kapid  Cupola  capable  of 
melting  7  to  10  tons  of  thoroughly  mixed  and  very  hot  iron 
per  hour  is  as  follows: 

Ft.  In. 
Outside  of  ordinary  shell 7    0  diam. 

"chimney 6  0 

"air-belt 9  2 

"receiver 4  0 

Ins  de  of  receiver 2  6 

"  cupola-lining  at  tuyeres 2  11 

"  charging- door 5  3 

"  at  chimney 4  3 

Total  height  of  cupola  proper  (exclusive  of  top  bracket)  46  0 

To  the  extreme  top  of  bracket 52  0 

Height  from  ground  level  to  charging-platform 22  0 

Height  from  charging-platform  to  sill  of  charging-door  2  0 

Height  of  air-belt 3  3 

' '       "  receiver-shell 3  9 

"      from  ground-level  to  tapping-hole 3  3 

Area  of  outlet-chimney  (inside  of  lining) 3  6  square 

Outside  size  of      "        4  9      " 

Capacity  of  receiver  (molten  metal) 2  tons 


Stibnite.  437  Stibnite. 

The  cupola  is  fixed  upon  a  strong  cast-iron  base-plate  7 
feet  6  inches  square  by  3  inches  thick.  This  base-plate  is 
cast  in  halves  across  the  corners,  so  as  to  allow  of  expansion 
with  the  cupola-shell.  It  is  supported  by  four  cast-iron 
columns  5  feet  long  by  10  inches  in  diameter,  which  are 
bolted  to  the  cast-iron  base-plate.  The  cupola  base-plate 
is  provided  with  a  wrought-iron  hinged  drop-bottom  door, 
which  is  also  in  halves,  opening  from  the  centre  of  base- 
plate. There  are  three  rows  of  tuyeres  to  supply  zones  of 
oxygen,  necessary  for  a  thorough  combustion  of  the  fuel, 
enclosed  in  the  air-belt,  each  zone  acting  independent  of 
the  others.  A  chief  feature  in  this  cupola  is  the  brick- 
lined  receiver  for  the  melted  metal,  by  which  means  the 
heat  is  retained  and  oxidation  prevented,  while  the  blast- 
pressure  maintains  an  agitation  conducing  to  a  thorough 
mixing  together  of  the  various  kinds  of  metal  entering  into 
the  charge.  The  waste  heat  is  utilized  by  passing  up  a 
gannister-lined  pipe  entering  the  cupola  just  above  the  air- 
belt.  This  cupola  is  hooded,  an  escape  for  waste  gases 
being  regulated  by  a  flap-door  at  the  side.  The  charging- 
platform  is  entirely  constructed  of  wrought-iron  crossed 
beams  and  plates,  the  joints  of  the  plates  being  carefully 
planed  and  the  plates  riveted  to  the  girders  to  insure  per- 
fect safety  to  the  workmen  below  and  above.  This  plat- 
form has  an  area  over  1200  superficial  feet,  and  is  covered 
by  a  wrought-iron  roof  with  provision  for  lighting  and 
ventilation.  The  platform  is  connected  with  a  hydraulic 
hoist. 

Stibnite,  or  Sulphuret  of  Antimony,  is  the  ore  from 
which  the  antimony  is  obtained.  It  is  found  in  primitive 
and  secondary  rocks  associated  with  sulphurets  of  lead  and 
zinc,  and  with  ores  of  copper,  iron,  and  arsenic.  Its  com- 
position is  antimony  74,  sulphur  26.  Lead,  gray  in  color, 
occurs  massive,  composed  of  delicate  threads  closely  aggre- 


Stone.  438  Stopping-off. 

gated,  and  sometimes  so  fine  as  to  resemble  wool.     See 
ANTIMONY. 

Stone. — The  substances  which  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  simple  stones  are  silica,  alumina,  zirconia,  glucina, 
lime,  magnesia,  etc.,  and  the  oxides  of  iron,  manganese, 
nickel,  chromium,  and  copper;  and  it  is  seldom  that  more 
than  four  or  five  of  these  substances  are'found  combined  in 
one  stone.  (See  SILICA;  SANDSTONE;  ROCK;  etc.)  Ar- 
tificial stone  is  produced  by  the  cementing  properties  of 
soluble  alkaline  silicates  on  sand.  Sand  10,  glass  1,  clay  ], 
silicate  of  soda  1,  is  brought  to  the  consistency  of  putty  in 
a  pug-mill;  this  is  moulded,  dried,  kilned  at  a  red  heat, 
and  allowed  to  cool,  thus  forming  a  vitrified  mass  similar 
to  sandstone.  A  later  method  produces  the  stone  without 
baking  by  effecting  a  double  composition  with  the  silicate 
of  soda  and  the  chloride  of  calcium.  See  SOLUBLE  GLASS. 

Stone-coal. — A  common  name  for  anthracite  coal. 
See  COAL. 

Stoneware. — Coarse  porcelain,  a  very  hard  kind  of 
pottery  made  from  clay  containing  ferric  oxide  and  some 
lime,  to  which  it  owes  its  partial  fusibility.  The  glazing  is 
done  by  throwing  common  salt  into  the  furnace  ;  this  is 
volatilized  and  decomposed  by  the  joint  agency  of  the  silica 
in  the  object  and  of  the  vapor  of  water  always  present; 
muriatic  acid  and  soda  are  thus  produced,  the  latter  form- 
ing a  silicate,  which  fuses  over  the  surface  of  the  ware  and 
leaves  thereon  a  thin  but  excellent  glaze.  See  POTTERY; 
PORCELAIN. 

Stopping  -  off.  —  A  foundry  designation  for  the 
methods  employed  to  produce  castings  which  differ  in  di- 
mensions and  form  from  the  pattern  supplied.  The  op- 


Stopping-up.  439  Straightening  Castings. 

erations  consist  essentially  of  cutting  off  and  adding  to 
portions  of  sand  by  means  of  the  regular  tools,  aided  by 
"  stopping-off  pieces."  Superior  workmen  are  employed  on 
this  work.  See  JOBBING-MOULDER  ;  TECHNICAL  EDUCA- 
TION FOR  THE  MOULDER. 

Stopping-lip. — A  phrase  employed  when  the  tap-hole 
is  being  plugged  with  clay  by  the  cupola-man.  See  BOTT- 
STICK;  BOTT-CLAY;  TAPPING-HOLE. 

Stourbridge  Fire-clay. — A  well  known  fire-clay. 
The  average  analysis  is:  silica  63.30,  alumina  23.30,  lime 
.73,  ferrous  oxide  1.80,  water  (hygroscopic)  10.30.  See 
FIRE-CLAY;  SILICA. 

Stove. — A  very  common  name  for  the  foundry  oven. 
See  OVEN. 

Stove-plate.— A  general  name  for  all  the  thin,  flat 
castings  used  for  the  construction  of  stoves. 

Straight-edge. — A  strip  of  wood  or  metal  with 
which  to  test  the  accuracy  of  an  edge  or  surface.  Se3 
PARALLEL  STRAIGHT-EDGE;  BED;  LEVEL. 

Straightening  Castings.  —  Many  methods  are 
practised  for  restoring  crooked  castings  to  the  proper 
shape,  but  the  best,  when  practicable,  is  to  make  them  red- 
hot  in  a  heating-furnace,  and  employ  such  means  after- 
wards as  will  hold  them  in  shape  until  they  are  cold.  Per- 
haps it  will  be  necessary  to  bend  a  little  in  the  opposite 
direction  before  they  can  be  made  to  assume  their  true  shape. 
In  proportion  as  this  effective  means  of  heating  can  be  ap- 
proached by  outside  firing,  so  will  the  measure  of  success 
be.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with  large,  complicated  cast- 


Strap.  440  Strength  of  Materials. 

ings.  Crooks  in  castings  are  seldom  abrupt;  the  line  inva- 
riably forms  a  true  curve.  To  bring  this  back  again  correctly 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  whole  be  heated;  otherwise 
it  will  simply  yield  at  the  heated  spot  or  spots,  leaving  two 
or  more  short  bends  in  place  of  the  original  regular  curve,  or, 
what  is  still  more  likely,  break  the  casting.  See  PEEKING. 

Strap. — The  belt,  of  leather  or  other  material,  used  for 
lifting  cores  into  the  mould.  Also,  a  strip  of  flat  iron 
screwed  fast  to  a  pattern  for  the  purpose  of  pulling  it  out 
of  the  sand.  A  hole  at  the  top  serves  to  insert  the  hook, 
and  a  toe  set  in  under  the  bottom  materially  assists  the 
short  screws  which  bind  it  to  the  pattern.  Straps  are 
always  best  when  they  are  inlaid  flush  with  the  face.  Long 
iron  straps  with  two  or  more  tapped  holes  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred for  securing  sweeps  to  the  spindle-arm;  they  are 
better  than  washers  and  nuts,  especially  when  each  bolt  has 
a  hole  forged  at  the  end  for  a  pointed  bar,  instead  of  the 
usual  head  for  the  wrench.  See  BELT;  SWEEP-BOAED. 

Straw  Rope. — Straw  twisted  into  a  rope  for  wrapping 
core-barrels,  and  other  purposes  for  which  hay  is  used. 
See  HAY  KOPE;  HAY-ROPE  TWISTER. 

Strength  of  Materials. — The  strength  of  materials 
is  governed  by  their  physical  constitution,  or  by  their  form, 
texture,  hardness,  elasticity,  and  ductility;  and  they  are 
tested  in  reference  to  various  strains — as  tensile,  crushing, 
transverse,  shearing,  and  torsional  strains.  Tensile  is  rep- 
resented by  suspending  a  rod  vertically  and  attaching 
weights  at  the  other  end,  which  will  tend  to  tear  it  asunder. 
Its  strength  depends  on  the  strength* of  each  individual 
fibre,  and  upon  their  number.  Crushing. — The  strength  of 
individual  pieces  of  material  whose  height  is  small  in  pro- 
portion to  their  area,  and  which  are  absolutely  crushed  un- 
der the  strain,  is  proportionate  to  the  area  of  their  horizontal 


Strickle. 


441 


Strickle. 


section.  Transverse. — A  beam  is  bent  from  its  horizontal 
shape  if  one  end  be  fixed  and  the  other  loaded.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  compressions  and  extensions  for  the  given 
strain  are  about  equal  if  the  beam  be  not  strained  beyond 
the  limit  of  its  elasticity;  we  approach  the  breaking-sfrain 
if  we  go  beyond  this  limit.  Shearing. — The  shearing  force  is 
exerted  when  the  particles  in  one  plane  are  caused  to  slide 
over  those  in  another,  as  in  cutting  plate-iron  with  the 
shears.  Torsion. — If  we  make  one  end  of  a  shaft  fast,  and 
exert  a  force  to  cause  it  to  rotate,  we  may  twist  the  shaft 
asunder  at  its  weakest  part.  In  this  case  the  fibres  far- 
thest from  the  centre  will  resist  the  most,  diminishing  in 
proportion  as  the  centre  is  reached. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


TENSILE 
STRENGTH. 

CRUSHING 
STRENGTH. 

TRANSVERSE 
STRENGTH. 

TORSION. 

Substances. 

Weight  re- 
quired to  pull 
a  bar  1  inch 
square 
asunder. 

Weight  re- 
quired to 
crush  1  inch 
square. 

Bar  1  inch 
square  and 
1  foot  long. 
Weight  sus- 
pended at  one 
end. 

Relative 
strength  to 
resist  torsion 
Lead  being  1. 

25,000 

120,000 

600 

9 

\Vroufflit  iron.      .    . 

60000 

50,000 

900 

10  1 

Steel         

90,000 

125,000 

1  500 

16  6 

20,000 

35,000 

Silver   cast       . 

40  000 

500 

Copper   cast 

20,000 

ioo  666 

4  3 

Tin   block    

4,000 

15,500 

50 

1  4 

/jiuc    cast  • 

2  500 

30 

Brass   yellow 

28,000 

4  6 

Bronze  |£?jpP«rla 

|   36,000 

5 

(  Tin  1  

1  800 

7  000 

20 

1 

— See  WEIGHT  OF  METALS. 

Strickle. — A  straight  edge  may  he  classed  as  a  strickle 
when  the  edge  is  bevelled  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  sand  or 
loam. 


Strike.  442  Stuckofen  Furnace. 

Any  board  or  iron  plate  used  for  fashioning  cores  or 
moulds,  loam-boards  for  pipe-cores,  pipe-sweeps,  loam- 
moulders'  sweep-boards,  etc.,  are  all  classed,  according  to 
locality,  as  strickles,  strikes,  or  sweeps.  In  skilful  hands 
the  strickle  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  display 
of  high-class  moulding.  Each  of  the  devices  mentioned  are 
explained  in  order  as  they  occur.  See  FORMER. 

Strike.— Same  as  strickle.    See  STRICKLE. 

Strong  Facing.— Facing-sand  is  termed  strong  or 
weak,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  clay  present,  or  the 
quantity  of  coal  used  in  the  mixture.  See  FACING-SAND. 

Strontium.— This    metal  resembles  barium    in   its 

appearance  and  properties.  The  nitrate  of  strontia  is 
principally  in  the  composition  of  the  well-known  red-fire 
of  the  pyrotechnist.  These  metals  occur  abundantly  as 
sulphate  and  carbonate,  forming  the  vein-stone  in  many 
lead-mines.  They  are  malleable,  melt  below  a  red  heat, 
decompose  water  with  evolution  of  hydrogen,  and  gradually 
oxidize  in  the  air.  See  METALS. 

Stucco.— A  common  term  for  various  kinds  of  compo- 
sition used  for  the  finer  parts  of  plaster-work  on  masonry 
and  interior  decorations.  By  the  addition  to  common 
plaster  of  other  suitable  ingredients  it  is  made  to  resem- 
ble the  various  kinds  of  marbles.  See  GYPSUM  ;  PLASTER 
CAST. 

Stuckofen  Furnace.— This  furnace  or  bloomary 
was  formerly  employed  in  some  parts  of  Germany  as  a 
direct  method  of  producing  malleable  iron  from  the  ore, 
but  it  has  been  gradually  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  less 
direct  but  more  economical  method's  now  in  vogue.  The 


Stud.  443         Sturtevant  Pressure-blower. 

furnace  is  about  fifteen  feet  high  and  thirty  inches  in  diam- 
eter at  the  hearth — the  latter  having  but  one  arch,  which 
serves  for  inserting  the  tuyere,  and  also  for  taking  out  the 
bloom. 

The  hearth  is  first  filled  with  charcoal  and  lighted,  after 
which  the  roasted  ore  and  charcoal  charged  alternately, 
when  the  tuyere  is  inserted  and  blast  supplied  from  a  bel- 
lows driven  by  a  convenient  water-wheel.  Slag  is  tapped 
from  time  to  time  and  the  metal  falls  to  the  hearth.  After 
about  twenty-four  hours  have  elapsed  the  blast  ceases,  thv3 
tuyere  is  drawn  out,  breast  removed,  and  the  bloom  lifted 
out  and  conveyed  to  the  shingling-hammer  for  consoli- 
dation. Subsequent  operations  after  the  usual  methods 
result  in  bar-iron.  See  SHINGLING;  PUDDLING;  etc. 

Stud. — See  CHAPLETS. 

Sturtevant  Pressure-blower.— The  vanes  of 
this  instrument  are  supported  by  spokes  radiating  from  an 
axis  having  conical  annular  disks  mounted  on  the  same 
axis,  and  the  fan  is  driven  by  two  belts,  to  prevent  wobbling. 
The  air  enters  between  the  spokes  around  the  axis,  and  is 
forcibly  driven  by  the  curved  floats  which  span  the  space 
between  the  annular  disks,  being  discharged  into  the 
circular  chamber  connecting  with  the  blast-pipe. 

In  addition  to  its  use  for  cupola-furnaces  and  forge-fires 
this  is  a  very  efficient  machine  for  producing  the  blast  in 
sand-blast  machines,  for  forcing  air  long  distances  in  con- 
nection with  the  pneumatic-tube  delivery  system,  or  in  any 
cases  where  a  high  pressure  or  strong  blast  is  required. 

It  is  built  heavier  and  stronger  than  formerly,  par- 
ticularly in  the  running  parts,  which  are  most  subject  to 
wear. 

The  high  speed  at  which  pressure-blower  belts  must  run 
renders  it  necessary  that  especial  attention  should  be  given 


Sublimation.  444  Sullage. 

them.  If,  while  a  heat  is  on  in  the  foundry,  the  belts 
begin  to  run  loose  or  slip,  a  stoppage  is  usually  necessary 
to  take  out  the  slack;  but  by  means  of  an  arrangement 
consisting  of  a  blower,  adjustable  by  a  screw,  on  a  wrought- 
iron  frame-bed,  any  required  tension  may  be  brought  upon 
the  belts  while  running,  thus  preventing  the  inconvenience 
and  loss  incident  to  a  stoppage  of  the  blower  while  work  is 
in  progress. 

The  use  of  this  bed  will  be  found  to  result  in  a  decided 
saving  in  belts.  Eelacing  for  the  purpose  of  taking  oub 
slack  is,  on  account  of  the  time  required,  ordinarily  put 
off  until  the  belt  will  run  no  longer;  but  a  turn  or  two  of 
the  nut  on  the  end  of  the  adjusting-screw  and  retightening 
the  holding-down  bolts  takes  but  a  moment,  and  is  more 
satisfactory  than  relacing.  See  BLOWER. 

Sublimation. — A  process  by  which  certain  volatile 
substances  are  raised  by  heat  and  again  condensed  by  cold 
into  a  solid  or  crystallized  form,  as  iodine,  sulphur,  arsenic. 
Camphor  thus  vaporizes  and  condenses  in  crystals  on  the 
sides  of  the  chemist's  jars  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  ordinary 
temperatures.  It  is  possible,  by  decomposing  a  compound 
liquid  or  gas,  to  obtain  one  or  more  of  its  constituents 
crystallized.  Various  gases  when  passed  through  red-hot 
tubes  deposit  crystals.  Metallic  solutions  are  decomposed 
by  passing  a  galvanic  current  through  them,  the  metals 
being  deposited  in  the  crystalline  form.  See  SULPHUR; 
ARSENIC. 

Sugar-pans. — See  PANS. 

Sullage. — Dirt  and  scoria  that  accumulate  on  the 
surface  of  molten  metal  during  the  process  of  filling 
moulds.  In  this  case  it  consists  of  the  melted  particles  of 
sand,  etc.,  gathered  from  the  mould  itself  as  well  as  that 


Sullage-head.  445  Sulphur. 

which  passes  therein  from  ladle  and  runner  surf  aces,  which 
latter  will  always  be  in  proportion  to'  the  amount  of  care 
exercised  to  prevent  it  by  suitable  skimming  arrangements. 
Cupola  and  ladle  slag  is  frequently  termed  sullage.  See 
SLAG;  SCORIA;  SKIMMING-GATE  ;  SKIMMER. 

Sullage-head.— See  HEAD. 

Sulphates  are  definite  compounds  of  sulphuric  acid 
with  the  salifiable  bases. 

Sulphites  are  definite  compounds  of  sulphurous  acid 
with  the  bases. 

Sulphur,  usually  called  brimstone,  is  sold  in  powder 
and  in  solid  pieces.  This  substance  exists  abundantly  in 
nature,  both  free  and  in  combination.  It  is  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  volcanoes,  especially  in  the  island  of  Sic- 
ily. It  exists  in  combination  with  various  metals,  forming 
sulphides,  and  as  a  constituent  of  sulphuric  acid  it  is  met 
with  in  gypsum  and  other  minerals.  It  is  volatile,  and  sub- 
limes by  heat.  Advantage  is  taken  of  its  volatility  to  sepa- 
rate it  from  the  mineral  impurities  with  which  it  is  found 
associated.  Iron  pyrites  contain  50  per  cent  of  sulphur, 
which  is  separated  by  roasting  or  heating  the  pyrites  in 
tubes  and  running  oif  the  sulphur  into  vessels  of  water. 
Sulphur  melts  at  239°  F.  At  this  temperature  it  is  thin  and 
fluid  as  water;  when  further  heated  it  thickens,  with  a 
darker  color;  and  at  480°  F.  it  is  so  tenacious  as  to  almost 
refuse  to  run.  Poured  into  water  in  this  condition  it  will 
retain  for  a  long  time  a  very  tenacious  and  soft  condition, 
followed  by  a  state  of  brittleness  again.  In  its  soft  condi- 
tion it  is  sometimes  called  2}U^y  sulphur.  In  this  state  it 
jnay  be  used  to  take  impressions  of  medals,  coins,  etc.  See 
SULPHUR  IMPRESSIONS, 


Sulphurets.  446  Sweep. 

Sulphurets  are  sulphides  or  combinations  of  alkalies 
or  metals  with  sulphur. 

Sulphuric  Acid  (the  oil  of  vitriol,  or  vitriol  of 
commerce)  is  a  powerful  acid  of  great  interest  to  chemists 
and  manufacturers.  It  is  found  in  the  craters  of  volcanoes 
and  in  mineral  springs;  but  it  is  generally  procured  by 
burning  nitre  and  sulphur  in  large  furnaces,  the  fumes 
from  which  are  delivered  into  large  lead  chambers,  where, 
by  the  action  of  steam  and  air  introduced,  it  is  deprived  of  an 
atom  of  oxygen  and  becomes  sulphuric  acid.  See  NITRE. 

Sulphur  Impressions. — These  impressions  of 
medals,  gems,  or  any  other  delicate  object  may  be  obtained 
easily  by  using  sulphur  when  it  has  been  made  to  assume 
the  soft  or  pastry  condition  (see  SULPHUR).  Or,  melt  the 
sulphur  and  increase  the  heat  until  it  becomes  brown;  then 
pour  into  a  vessel,  and  just  before  it  hardens  press  the  object 
enough  to  obtain  a  good  impression.  See  MEDALS. 

Swal). — A  substitute  for  a  brush;  a  hemp  contrivance 
for  holding  and  delivering  water,  made  either  by  wrapping 
one  end  of  a  piece  of  rope  and  combing  out  the  rest,  or 
from  new  hemp,  which  needs  only  to  be  wrapped  at  the 
end.  Large  ones  serve  to  moisten  joints,  etc.;  small  ones 
are  useful  to  hold  in  the  hand,  and  by  a  gentle  pressure 
cause  a  fine  stream  of  water  to  flow  upon  an  edge,  etc. 
Swabs  are  extremely  useful  for  spreading  blackening  upon 
dry-sand  moulds  made  from  soft  friable  sands,  as  they  do 
not  tear  up  the  surface  in  the  manner  a  bristle  brush  in- 
variably does.  Dealers  supply  good  swabs  at  a  price  slightly 
in  excess  of  what  the  best  hemp  costs. 

Swab -pot. — The  iron  pot  containing  water  and  swab 
used  by  the  moulder.  See  SWAB. 

Sweep. — See  STRICKLE, 


Sweepboard.  447  Tackle. 

Sweep-board  is  essentially  a  strickle,  but  this  term 
is  invariably  used  for  all  boards  that  are  intended  to  sweep 
circular  moulds  by  means  of  the  spindle.  The  sweep- 
board  is  bolted  to  the  spindle-arm,  and,  being  revolved, 
imparts  to  the  finished  cope  whatever  design  has  been 
carved  on  its  edge.  See  STKICKLE;  SPINDLE;  LOAM- 
MOULDING. 


Swelled    Castings.  — See    HAMMING;    VENTING; 
TRAMPING. 


Swivel. — In  foundry  nomenclature  swivels  mean  the 
trunnions  of  a  flask.  Properly  speaking,  a  swivel  consists 
of  a  link  made  to  turn  round  on  a  headed  pin.  See 
FLASKS;  CHAIN. 

Swivel-chain  is  a  chain  supplied  with  a  swivel-link 
to  permit  an  even  disposal  of  the  links,  free  from  twisting 
or  kinks.  This  may  be  accomplished  in  a  superior  manner 
by  inserting  a  long  flat  link,  which,  besides  working  loose  on 
a  link-pin  at  one  end,  is  also  tapped  at  the  other  end  to 
receive  a  long  threaded  link-pin,  by  which  means  several 
chains  maybe  readily  adjusted  to  any  required  variety  of 
lengths,  and  thus  effectually  dispense  with  the  dangerous 
method  of 'twisting  the  chains,  so  prevalent  in  some  foun- 
dries. A  chain  made  in  this  manner  is  commonly  termed 
a  buckle  chain  by  foundrymen.  See  CHAIN;  SWIVEL. 


T. 

Tabor  Moulding   Machine. —  See    MOULDING- 
MACHINES. 

Tackle. — See  RIGGING. 


Talc.  448  Tapping-bar. 

Talc  occurs  in  primitive  rocks,  as  granite  and  serpen- 
tine. It  somewhat  resembles  mica,  but  the  latter  is  both 
flexible  and  elastic,  while  talc  is  elastic  but  not  flexible. 
Its  composition  is  silex  61,  magnesia  30.5,  potash  2.75, 
oxide  of  iron  2.5,  water  0.5.  It  is  used  for  crucibles,  the 
manufacture  of  crayons,  porcelain,  etc.  It  is  a  soft  white, 
transparent  or  translucent  mineral,  and  is  commonly 
termed  steatite  when  massive.  See  SOAPSTONE. 

Tamping  is  the  process  of  filling  the  hole  above  the 
charge  when  blasting  rock,  so  that  the  force  may  be  ex- 
pended laterally,  and  thus  rend  the  rock  asunder. 

Tam-tam. — A  Chinese  gong.  See  GONG-METAL;  AL- 
LOYS. 

Tank.— See  KESERVOIR;  DAM. 

Tap. — The  quantity  of  metal  which  runs  from  a  furnace 
or  cupola,  from  the  time  of  opening  or  tapping  to  that  of 
closing  or  botting  up,  is  called  a  tap.  A  large  ladle  is  said 
to  be  filled  at  one  or  more  taps,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Tap-cinder.— See  MILL-CINDER. 

Taper  is  draught  given  to  patterns  and  models  to  make 
their  withdrawal  from  the  sand  easier.  In  other  words, 
the  lowest  parts  of  a  pattern  are  made  smaller  in  dimen- 
sions than  the  upper,  in  order  that  a  gradually  increasing 
clearance  shall  occur  as  the  pattern  is  being  drawn  from 
the  sand.  This  not  only  minimizes  the  damage  to  the 
mould,  but  to  pattern  also ;  the  straining  and  rapping 
being  always  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  taper  given. 
See  DRAUGHT. 

Tapping-bar. — A  pointed  iron  bar  for  removing  tLe 
play  bott  when  it  is  desired  to  let  metal  out  of  the  cupola, 


Tapping-hole.  449  Tapping-hole. 

A  set  of  bars  for  this  purpose  should  include,  first,  a  scoop- 
shaped  tool  about  3  feet  long,  with  which  to  remove  all 
superfluous  clay  from  the  orifice  of  the  tap-hole  before  the 
final  impression  is  made,  with  a  longer  one  having  a  point, 
the  idea  being  to  clean  all  the  clay  out  of  the  spout  with 
the  scoop  before  the  stream  is  permitted  to  run,  and  thus 
prevent  its  being  carried  down  into  the  ladle.  Besides 
these  it  is  always  prudent  to  have  another  of  larger  dimen- 
sions, made  of  steel  and  drawn  to  a  square  point;  this 
should  always  be  ready,  along  with  a  good  sledge,  in  case 
the  plug  should  congeal  and  require  to  be  driven  in.  A 
large  bar  of  common  iron  is  useful,  at  times,  for  a  thorough 
opening  out  of  the  hole  during  protracted  heats.  See 
BOTT-CLAY  ;  TAPPING-HOLE;  CUPOLA. 

Tapping-hole  is  the  hole  provided  at  the  bottom  of 
the  furnace  through  which  the  molten  metal  is  allowed  to 
run  at  intervals  during  the  operation  of  melting.  Ordi- 
narily, for  the  cupola,  it  is  made  new,  along  with  the  spout, 
for  every  cast.  When  it  is  time  to  form  this  hole,  a  round 
bar  from  1  to  2  inches  diameter,  according  to  dimensions 
of  cupola,  is  thrust  into  the  burning  fuel  at  the  breast, 
taking  care  that  it  rests  solid  on  the  bottom,  after  which 
the  breast-hole  is  rammed  with  sand  and  the  bar  with- 
drawn. The  above  is  a  general  view  of  this  operation,  but 
it  is  well  to  observe  some  of  the  special  features  connected 
with  it  more  particularly.  In  the  first  place,  a  short  hole 
is  always  best,  there  being  then  less  danger  of  the  metal 
congealing  in  the  tap-hole;  this  is  accomplished  by  reduc- 
ing the  brickwork  of  the  lining  inside  the  cupola  at  this 
part,  and  the  length  may  be  still  further  reduced  by 
widening  the  orifice  at  the  front  until  not  more  than  4 
inches  of  straight  hole  remains.  This  of  course  brings  the 
bott  end  of  the  molten  plug  nearer  to  the  molten  iron 
inside  the  cupola,  and  thus  prevents  freezing.  If  the  outer 


Tar.  450  Tar. 

edge  of  the  tap-hole  be  made  slightly  funnel-shaped  for 
about  2  inches  in,  there  will  be  less  difficulty  in  pressing  in 
the  bott  than  is  experienced  when  the  hole  is  parallel  all 
the  way  through.  This  is  all-important  where  all  the 
metal  the  cupola  will  hold  is  allowed  to  gather  in  the 
bottom  before  it  is  tapped.  An  important  feature  in 
the  bricked  spout  is  that  it  provides  a  safe  abutment  for 
the  breast,  making  it  impossible  for  the  inside  pressure  to 
force  it  back.  If  the  cupola-daubing,  tempered  with  fire- 
sand,  be  used  in  immediate  contact  with  the  bar  when  the 
tap-hole  is  being  formed,  and  for  the  bed  next  the  spout 
also,  all  possibility  of  slag  forming  at  the  tap-hole  is  obviated, 
the  substances  composing  this  daubing  being  too  refractory 
to  melt  at  that  temperature.  Let  the  first  bott  always  be 
a  long  one,  reaching  well  into  the  tap-hole,  for  reasons 
above  described,  and  in  order  that  it  may  be  easily  taken 
out  when  it  is  desired  to  make  the  first  tap;  make  a  hole 
through  the  bott,  after  it  has  been  formed  on  the  stick, 
and  fill  it  with  common  black  sand  off  the  floor;  by  the 
time  this  has  been  pressed  well  into  the  tap-hole  there 
remains  little  but  sand  to  be  removed — an  easy  operation. 
See  TAPPING-BAR;  BOTT-CLAY;  CUPOLA;  BREAST;  SPOUT. 

Tar. — A  viscid  liquid,  usually  from  brown  to  black  in 
color,  obtained  in  the  destructive  distillation  of  orgnnic 
matters.  Wood-tar  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
wood  vinegar,  and  yields,  on  repeated  fractional  distil- 
lations, creosote,  paraffine,  picamar,  etc.  Stockholm-tar 
is  obtained  in  the  same  manner  from  roots  and  other 
useless  parts  of  resinous  pines.  Coal-tar  comes  from  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal  in  the  manufacture  of 
coal-gas,  and  when  distilled  yields  carbolic  acid,  cresylic 
alcohol,  etc. ;  also  the  liquid  hydrocarbons  benzol,  toluol, 
etc. ;  the  solid  hydrocarbons  paraffine,  napthaline,  and  the 
compounds  coridine,  piciline,  aniline,  etc.  See  PITCH. 


Tartaric  Acid.  451  Technical  Education. 

Tartaric  Acid. — An  organic  acid  found  in  grapes, 
the  tamarind,  unripe  berries  of  the  mountain  ash;  and  in 
small  quantity  in  some  other  plants.  In  grape-juice  it  is 
present  as  a  bitartrate  of  potash  or  cream  of  tartar,  and  it 
forms  on  the  insides  of  wine-casks  as  a  hard  crust.  The 
acid  is  obtained  from  the  bitartrate  by  the  action  of  chalk 
and  sulphuric  acid.  When  pure,  its  crystals  are  colorless 
and  transparent,  and  in  dry  air  they  remain  permanent. 
Mixed  with  bicarbonates  of  the  alkalies  it  forms  the  soda- 
powder  for  effervescing  drinks.  When  heated  to  redness 
in  a  covered  crucible  it  forms  the  mixture  of  carbon  and 
carbonate  of  potash  known  in  the  laboratory  as  black  flux. 
When  it  is  calcined  with  twice  its  weight  of  water,  white 
flux  is  formed.  SEE  FLUX. 

Technical  Education  for  the  Moulder.— We 

are  told  that  technical  education  has  for  its  object  the 
training  of  persons  in  the  arts  and  sciences  that  underlie 
the  practice  of  some  trade  or  profession,  and  embraces  all 
kinds  of  instruction  that  have  direct  reference  to  the  career 
a  person  is  following  or  preparing  to  follow. 

Owing  to  the  gradual  breaking  up  of  the  apprenticeship 
system,  the  ranks  of  the  skilled  foundrymen  have  been 
woefully  reduced,  and  must  continue  to  be  indifferently 
recruited  from  among  the  foreign  workmen  who  arrive 
here,  if  something  be  not  done  at  once  to  check  the  evil. 
The  question  naturally  arises  at  this  crisis,  Will  the  techni- 
cal schools  furnish  the  remedy? 

A  thorough  apprenticeship  means  such  instruction  in  the 
trade  as  will  give  the  young  man  an  intelligent  knowledge 
of  all  its  branches;  but  this  means  that  he  shall  be  gradu- 
ally advanced,  step  by  step,  and  receive  special  instruction 
and  practice  in  each  department — a  system  entirely  at  vari- 
ance with  what  are  now  considered  to  be  the  best  means 
for  rapid  production. 


Technical  Education.  452  Technical  Education. 

Under  the  old  regime  the  boy  received  the  fullest  share 
of  attention  from  his  so-called  "master,"  and  it  was  rea- 
sonable to  expect  that  he  would  be  taught  all  that  it  was 
possible  to  teach,  if  the  true  spirit  of  the  indenture  were 
carried  out.  The  "  master  "  was  bound  to  teach  the  boy 
all  of  his  trade,  omitting  nothing.  Under  such  circum- 
stances every  detail  of  the  craft  was  learned,  and  on  the 
termination  of  the  contract  he  who  was  the  obedient  ap- 
prentice rightfully  became  the  competent  journeyman. 

If  we  look  carefully  into  the  subject  we  shall  discover  that 
production  on  a  large  scale  has  been  the  means  of  inaugurat- 
ing a  new  system  of  dividing  labor.  Now,  this  system  works 
advantageously  to  the  employer,  because,  keeping  a  boy  con- 
stantly on  one  particular  branch  of  work,  he  naturally 
becomes  more  expert,  and  the  total  output  of  his  work  is 
proportionately  increased  thereby.  The  result  of  this  new 
order  of  things  has  been  to  limit  the  boy's  ideas  of  mould- 
ing to  that  particular  part  upon  which  he  has  spent  his 
effort,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  greater  part  of  what  consti- 
tutes the  full  and  legal  measure  of  a  journeyman's  knowl- 
edge of  the  trade.  In  other  words,  he  is  launched  into  the 
business  world  a  thoroughly  incompetent  moulder ;  and 
there  are  to-day  hundreds  of  such  graduating  in  the  large 
pump,  architectural,  and  stove  corporations,  in  the  found- 
ries of  which  boys  are  kept  at  one  job  throughout  the 
whole  course  of  their  servitude. 

This  apparently  unpreventable  condition  of  things  has, 
more  than  any  other  cause,  created  the  necessity  for  tech- 
nical education  of  a  kind  that  will,  if  possible,  not  only 
train  the  minds  of  our  youth  in  the  arts  and  sciences 
underlying  their  trade,  but  also  practically  make  good  the 
deficiencies  of  such  an  incomplete  apprenticeship. 

The  difficulties  in  obtaining  a  sound  technical  education 
are,  we  admit,  very  great;  and  it  would  be  unreasonable  to 
expect  that  the  theoretical  and  practical  could  ever  attain 


Technical  Education.  453  Technical  Education. 

to  the  highest  degree  of  excellence  in  the  one  individual. 
The  requirements  in  each  case  are  necessarily  of  a  differ- 
ent order,  each  demanding  special  and  distinct  lines  of 
thought  and  action — for  which  reason  the  likelihood  of  such 
a  union  is  rendered  very  doubtful.  It  must  be  conceded, 
however,  that  to  the  acknowledged  advantage  of  a  techni- 
cal training,  as  affecting  the  moulders  themselves  and  the 
welfare  of  the  foundry  generally,  we  must  add  the  certain 
improvement  that  must  take  place  in  the  work  produced, 
resulting  from  the  superior  and  better-trained  intelligence 
of  those  who  would  be  benefited  by  such  instruction. 

Some  writers  have  been  uncharitable  enough  to  suggest 
that  this  superior  knowledge,  once  gained,  would  generate 
in  the  workman  a  dislike  for  the  ruder  and  more  active 
parts  of  his  trade.  The  writer  of  this  hastens  to  correct 
all  such  ill-timed  and  unwise  conclusions.  We  have  always 
found  the  opposite  to  obtain  in  every  instance:  the  greater 
the  intelligence  of  the  workman,  the  more  diligent  he  be- 
comes. His  superior  knowledge  imparts  a  stimulus  to  the 
efforts  he  puts  forth;  and  the  result  of  his  labors,  being 
manifestly  in  advance  of  his  less  intelligent  fellow-crafts- 
men, meets  with  substantial  and  well-merited  approval. 
This,  of  course,  is  the  legitimate  reward,  and  constitutes  a 
fitting  accompaniment  to  the  inner  satisfaction  he  enjoys. 
But,  rest  assured,  the  moulder  possessing  these  superior 
attainments  will  not  long  remain  in  the  ranks:  he  will  un- 
doubtedly be  called  into  higher  spheres  of  usefulness,  where 
opportunities  will  be  afforded  for  a  fuller  and  more  effec- 
tive display  of  his  talents. 

The  fact  that  it  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  obtain 
competent  foremen  for  some  of  the  mammoth  foundries 
now  being  erected  is  made  more  apparent  every  day.  In 
order  that  there  should  be  nothing  lacking  in  the  manage- 
ment of  such  concerns,  proprietors  have  in  many  instances 
been  compelled  to  engage  the  services  of  an  educated 


Technical  Education.  454  Technical  Edncation. 

superintendent,  ^liose  chief  business  is  to  overlook  the 
foundry  generally,  and  see  that  every  action  of  the  more 
active  foreman  is  directed  in  channels  that  run  in  har- 
mony with  known  physical  laws. 

Why  the  moulders  of  to-day  are  incompetent  for  such 
positions  is  attributable  to  two  causes — the  first  being  the 
altered  condition  under  which  foundries  are  now  being 
conducted,  rendering  it  simply  impossible  for  the  ordinary 
workman  to  acquaint  himself  with  all  the  details  connected 
with  the  trade.  The  second  cause  will  be  discovered  to 
be  a  natural  result  of  the  rude  awakening  experienced  in 
the  foundry  interest  generally  to  the  fact  that  they  were 
wretchedly  behind  every  other  branch  of  the  iron  industry 
in  the  application  of  modern  improvements,  mechanical 
and  otherwise,  and  in  their  pardonable  haste  to  redeem 
themselves  appliances  have  been  added  in  such  number 
and  kind  and  with  such  precipitancy  as  to  change  the 
nature  of  things  in  the  foundry  altogether. 

The  suddenness  of  these  late  innovations  has  been  almost 
bewildering  in  its  effect  upon  the  old  systems  of  manage- 
ment; but  if,  during  the  time  this  forced  exodus  of  old- 
fogyisrn  was  taking  place,  the  foreman  had  been  supple- 
menting his  daily  shop  practice  with  evening  instruction 
in  some  well-conducted  technical  school,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  he  would  have  been  equal  to  the  emergency,  as  the 
knowledge  there  obtained  of  the  new  requirements  would 
have  qualified  him  to  adequately  fill  the  position,  even  with 
the  increased  responsibilities  consequent  in  the  changes 
spoken  of. 

We  regret  to  notice  that  (excepting  one  or  two  noble 
examples)  as  yet  there  does  not  seem  to  have  been  any 
genuine  effort  to  make  the  foundry  department  in  most 
of  the  existing  schools  equal  to  the  requirements.  We 
need  never  expect  these  schools  to  give  the  requisite  in- 
struction for  overcoming  the  difficulties  above  described 


Technical  Education.  455  Technical  Education. 

while  the  present  system  of  choosing  instructors  is  main- 
tained. The  latter-mentioned  dignitaries  are,  as  a  rule, 
very  deficient  in  all  that  pertains  to  a  correct  knowl- 
edge of  founding;  nor  need  we  wonder  at  this  when  we 
consider  that  the  salaries  offered  for  such  instructors  aie 
usually  much  below  the  remuneration  a  good  journeyman 
moulder  receives  at  the  foundry.  The  sooner  this  phase 
of  the  subject  is  thoroughly  investigated  by  the  authorities 
in  these  matters  the  better  it  will  inevitably  be  for  all  con- 
cerned. 

We  have  reason  to  believe  that,  if  more  latitude  were 
given  the  professors  in  selecting  instructors  of  founding, 
a  much  better  state  of  things  would  prevail.  They  would 
naturally  look  about  for  the  most  suitable  person,  and  offer 
such  inducement  as  would  be  likely  to  secure  the  worthiest 
men  for  candidates.  As  matters  appear  to  stand  at  pres- 
ent, the  trustees  of  these  institutions,  who,  we  may  sur- 
mise, are  as  a  rule  unacquainted  with  the  actual  require- 
ments for  such  a  position,  allow  feelings  of  prejudice  and 
mistaken  notions  of  economy  to  prevail;  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, instructors  are  appointed  without  reference  to 
capacity,  their  chief  recommendation  being  the  diminutive 
compensation  claimed  for  such  valuable  (?)  services. 

Foundry  instructors  should  be  unmistakably  acknowl- 
edged masters  of  the  art  of  founding;  and  their  education 
should,  at  least,  measure  up  to  a  standard  that  will  enable 
them  to  explain  in  an  intelligible  manner  every  operation 
involved  in  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  castings,  as  well 
as  the  concomitant  qualities  of  an  executive  order.  The 
moulder  whose  career  has  been  a  marked  success  in  the 
foundry,  and  who  has  graduated  in  the  sciences  directly 
bearing  on  his  trade  at  one  of  the  schools,  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  very  best  candidates  for  the  position  of  in- 
structor of  founding  at  the  technical  schools;  and  none 
of  the  very  questionable  reasons  above  mentioned  should 


Technical  Education.  456  Technical  Education. 

be  allowed  to  operate  against  the  appointment  of  such 
candidates. 

This  degree  of  qualification  can  only  be  attained  by  men 
who,  having  realized  the  necessity  of  such  attainments, 
have  diligently  studied  the  theoretical  as  well  as  practical 
part  of  their  trade.  It  is  in  this  very  particular  that  the 
present  technical-school  system  offers  perhaps  the  best 
opportunity  yet  known  for  the  aspiring  founder  to  advance 
himself. 

A  highly  reprehensible  feature  in  some  of  these  institu- 
tions is  the  placing  of  one  person  to  instruct  in  two  or 
more  departments.  To  expect  that  one  teacher,  no  matter 
how  extensively  read  he  may  be  in  the  text-books,  can  cor- 
rectly teach  several  trades  is  preposterous.  Such  a  system, 
if  persisted  in,  must  assuredly  result  in  failure  and  disgrace. 
The  engineer,  no  matter  how  profound  and  extended  his 
general  knowledge  may  be,  would  naturally  shrink  from 
the  task  of  instructing  a  moulder  in  all  the  niceties  and 
perplexing  phases  connected  with  the  art  of  founding,  as 
would  also  the  intelligent  boiler-maker,  if  he  were  asked 
to  instruct  a  class  in  modelling;  and  yet  it  is  a  fact  that 
such  impossibilities  are  attempted,  with  what  results  we 
may  readily  infer. 

We  confess  to  being  somewhat  amused  when  we  read 
and  hear  the  constant  complaint  about  "the  inaccuracies 
of  the  average  moulder ;"  but  we  happen  to  know  that  the 
slipshod  methods  of  working,  so  prevalent  in  some  places, 
is  mainly  owing  to  the  fact  that  ignorance  of  the  real 
necessities  of  the  foundry  on  the  part  of  the  management 
has  tended  to  the  withholding  of  such  appliances  as  would 
insure  the  accuracy  looked  for.  Consequently,  for  lack  of 
encouragement,  the  moulder  has  been  forced  to  invent 
some  makeshift  for  the  occasion;  hence  it  is  common  to 
hear  the  expression,  "Anything  will  do  for  the  foundry." 

The  spirit  of  contempt  for  foundry  needs  and  conveni- 


Technical  Education.  457  Technical  Education. 

ences  has  at  last  received  its  death-blow  in  the  manufacto- 
ries, as  we  have  endeavored  to  show;  but,  strange  to  say,  it 
has  again  risen  phoenix-like  in  the  schools — the  very  last 
place  we  should  have  expected  to  find  it.  Pass  through  the 
several  departments  of  the  general  order  of  technical 
schools,  and  you  will  find  that  the  equipment  is  on  a  grand 
scale  for  almost  every  section  except  the  foundry.  The 
engine-room  is  a  model  of  perfection,  as  it  ought  to  be ; 
the  fitting,  turning,  and  general  machine-rooms  are  ele- 
gantly provided  with  the  most  modern  machinery ;  the 
forging  department  has  all  that  could  be  desired  to  make 
it  of  real  service,  while  the  carpentry  and  other  wood- 
working sections  are  lacking  in  nothing  to  make  instruc- 
tion effective.  Last,  but  by  no  means  least  in  importance, 
is  the  foundry,  where  we  find  almost  everything  narrowed 
down  to  a  mere  shadow  of  what  ought  to  exist  in  this 
department  if  it  is  to  be  of  any  practical  benefit  what- 
ever. 

The  young  men  from  our  foundries,  who  are  anxious  to 
supplement  their  daily  practice  with  such  instruction  as 
might  very  readily  be  given  in  these  schools,  are  instantly 
provoked  to  laughter  when  they  first  contemplate  the 
meagre  and  insufficient  means  usually  provided  for  illus- 
trating the  art  of  founding — in  some  instances  not  going 
beyond  the  antiquated  sand-tub  of  our  respected  fore- 
fathers, with  a  few  small  flasks  which  bear  no  resemblance 
whatever  to  those  used  in  actual  practice.  This,  in  con- 
junction with  the  very  indifferent  cupola  arrangements, 
constitutes  in  some  schools  what  is  considered  sufficient 
for  foundry  instruction.  Such  means  are  undoubtedly  in- 
adequate for  any  other  purpose  than  to  furnish  occasional 
amusement  to  the  general  order  of  students,  who  have  not 
the  remotest  idea  of  ever  engaging  in  the  business  of 
founding. 

These  excellent  institutions  may  be  made  invaluable  to 


Technical  Education.  458  Technical  Education. 

the  moulder,  if  the  regularly  constituted  authorities  can  be 
brought  to  grasp  the  situation.  No  general  treatment  will 
answer  his  case  fully;  there  must  be  a  special  and  clearly 
defined  course  of  instruction,  excluding  all  subjects  that 
have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  subject  of  founding.  This 
special  education  should  include  chemistry,  because  by  its 
aid  much  of  that  which  is  enigmatical  in  foundry  prac- 
tice, and  which  to  the  unlearned  is  still  a  positive  mys- 
tery, can  be  made  plain  and  intelligible.  A  knowledge  of 
this  science  would  so  change  the  order  of  things  as  to 
make  what  has  heretofore  baen  a  monotonous  drudgery  an 
extremely  agreeable  occupation.  Another  important  result 
of  this  increased  intelligence  would  be  a  sensible  diminu- 
tion of  the  failures  and  loss  incident  to  practice  founded 
on  nothing  more  than  the  merest  chance. 

The  need  for  a  more  extended  application  of  the  science 
of  chemistry  is  constantly  being  forced  on  the  founder  in 
some  way  or  other.  Chemists  whose  occupation  has  been  in 
line  with  the  foundry  are  now  telling  us  that  the  methods 
usually  adopted  for  ascertaining  the  nature  and  quality  of 
pig  iron  are  untrustworthy,  and  must  ultimately  give  place 
to  the  more  scientific  mode  of  analysis.  The  latter  method, 
they  claim,  will  enable  the  founder  to  determine  the  mixt- 
ure from  the  analysis  furnished  by  the  makers,  before  it 
is  charged  into  the  cupola,  to  a  certainty;  because,  having 
a  knowledge  of  the  properties  common  to  the  several  ele- 
ments present,  he  will  be  able  to  blend  the  several  brands 
in  such  proportions  as  will  produce  the  desired  qualities  in 
resultant  mixture. 

A  practical  demonstration  of  this  and  other  theories 
could  be  readily  made  in  the  technical  schools  by  succes- 
sive mixtures  melted  in  crucibles;  the  formula  for  each 
mixture  could  be  changed,  and  a  record  kept  of  the  changes 
caused  by  the  varying  quantities  of  the  several  elements 
entering  into  each  test.  The  physical  results,  such  as 


Technical  Education.  459  Technical  Education. 

hardness,  fluidity,  chill,  shrinkage,  strength,  etc.,  could  be 
satisfactorily  determined  by  Keep's  Testing-machine— a 
knowledge  of  the  use  of  which  should  be  taught  in  every 
school  of  technology. 

Some  natural  philosophy  as  well  as  mathematics  must 
enter  into  this  special  course,  in  order  that  the  laws  relat- 
ing to  combustion,  pressures,  and  numerous  other  kindred 
subjects,  but  very  imperfectly  understood  by  the  great 
army  of  moulders,  may  be  more  generally  known  among 
them.  All  this  will  tend  to  sharpen  the  inventive  facul- 
ties, and  give  zest  and  energy  to  minds  which  must  other- 
wise remain  comparatively  dormant. 

While  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  general  equipment 
for  the  technical  school  cannot  possibly  equal  in  magnitude 
or  variety  that  required  for  large  foundries,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  to  be  of  any  practical  service  whatever  all 
such  equipment  should  contain  all  the  elements  suitable 
for  a  practical  demonstration  and  thorough  illustration  of 
every  department  of  the  trade  by  the  instructor. 

The  cupola,  for  instance,  should  not  be  smaller  than  24 
inches  inside  diameter,  plain  in  design,  but  provided  with 
the  best  furnishings  in  ordinary  use.  The  reasons  for 
suggesting  a  plain  cupola  are  that  more  of  that  kind  are 
in  use  than  of  any  other,  and  comparisons  with  improved 
specimens  can  be  more  readily  made;  also,  that  they  are 
better  for  experimental  purposes. 

Instruments  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  friction,  press- 
ure, etc.,  in  blast-pipes  and  all  the  phenomena  connected 
with  melting  should  be  provided,  and  their  use  fully  ex- 
plained by  the  instructor.  The  cupola  would  be  the  place 
where  the  instructor  could  in  the  most  effective  manner 
teach  sound  views,  based  upon  actual  practice  and  experi- 
ment, regarding  the  economy  of  fuel;  what  is  meant  by 
perfect  combustion,  and  how  it  is  brought  about  in  the 
cupola;  the  importance  of  supplying  the  exact  quantity  of 


Technical  Education.  460  Technical  Education. 

air  to  secure  best  results,  and  how  to  correctly  measure  the 
same,  etc. 

The  reverberate ry  furnace  need  not  be  of  greater  ca- 
pacity than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  demonstrating  its 
use  for  the  purpose  of  melting  cast  iron  and  brass.  The 
different  principles  of  melting  in  direct  contact  with  the 
fuel,  as  in  the  cupola,  and  of  melting  by  exposing  the  metal 
to  the  action  of  the  flame,  as  in  the  reverberatory,  could 
be  effectively  illustrated  and  explained  by  actual  practice. 
Subsequent  tests,  chemical  and  physical,  would  reveal  dif- 
ferences caused  by  the  two  methods  of  melting,  as  well  as 
furnish  practice  and  experience  in  a  branch  of  the  business 
which  has  for  some  time  been  considerably  undervalued 
and  neglected. 

Crucible-melting  for  brass,  cast  iron,  and  steel  should  be 
taught  thoroughly.  For  brass  an  ordinary  air-furnace  of 
the  common  type  should  be  provided,  in  order  to  clearly 
demonstrate  the  different  modes  of  melting  with  a  natural 
draught  and  a  forced  one,  the  latter  being  the  style  of 
furnace  to  be  provided  for  melting  cast  iron  and  steel. 
The  common  brass-furnace  with  natural  draught  may  be 
converted  into  a  blast-furnace  suitable  for  melting  cast  iron 
or  steel  in  crucibles  by  simply  making  the  ash-pit  door 
air-tight  and  introducing  the  blast  therein  at  a  pressure  of 
about  three  ounces.  This  would  serve  to  illustrate  the 
ordinary  class  of  crucible-melting,  and  should  be  sup- 
plemented by  a  regenerating-furnace  of  the  latest  type, 
suitable  for  exhibiting  the  improved  methods  of  obtaining 
extreme  heats  from  inferior  fuels,  etc.  The  uses  to  which 
the  crucible  can  be  put  for  experimental  purposes  are  too 
numerous  to  mention  here,  and  no  instructor  who  under- 
stands this  thoroughly  will  fail  to  make  good  use  of  the 
opportunities  they  offer. 

If  moulding  is  to  be  taught  in  the  technical  school, 
castings  must  be  made  undoubtedly  of  such  kind  and 


Technical  Education.  461  Technical  Education. 

dimensions  as  will  best  serve  to  bring  out  distinctly  all  the 
underlying  principles  which  govern  the  art.  Objections 
are  made  to  this  view  of  the  matter  on  the  ground  of  ex- 
pense principally,  but  this  should  not  be  allowed  to  prevail 
if  we  are  earnest  in  our  desires  to  see  this  great  object  suc- 
ceed. Here,  again,  we  notice  that  no  complaint  reaches 
the  surface  on  that  score  about  any  other  department  than 
the  foundry.  It  cannot  be  that  the  objectors  are  so  igno- 
rant of  affairs  as  to  think  the  business  of  founding  of 
minor  importance  in  the  great  metal  industries.  Every 
day  furnishes  evidence  conclusive  that  the  foundry  ranks 
as  high,  if  not  higher,  than  any  other  department  in  im- 
portance, and  that  under  intelligent  and  skilful  direction 
it  may  be  made  even  more  valuable  than  has  yet  been 
dreamed  of. 

Allow  the  foundry  instruction  in  these  schools  to  occupy 
the  position  it  is  justly  entitled  to,  and  we  shall  not  be  long 
in  discovering  that  our  fears  were  without  foundation. 
Our  young  men  will  immediately  avail  themselves  of  the 
opportunities  offered  for  obtaining  information  beyond 
that  afforded  in  the  daily  routine  of  the  shop.  They  will 
attend  the  night-schools,  because,  owing  to  the  diversified 
exercises  chosen,  there  will  always  be  something  novel  and 
instructive  to  attract  the  attention  and  secure  their  steady 
attendance  upon  the  studies  enforced. 

Suitable  objects  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  meth- 
ods of  moulding  in  loam,  green-sand,  dry  sand,  and  core- 
making  of  all  descriptions  could  be  readily  obtained  from 
the  neighboring  manufactories  and  city  works  of  castings 
of  a  duplicate  character  in  constant  demand.  Drawings 
could  be  furnished  by  said  firms  to  which  patterns,  core- 
boxes,  and  sweeps  could  be  made  by  the  students  in  that 
branch  under  direction  of  their  own  instructor,  aided  by 
the  instructor  of  founding.  The  patterns  would  furnish 
admirable  practice  of  a  genuine  kind,  and  when  complete 


Technical  Education.  462  Technical  Education. 

would  be  moulded  from  in  the  foundry.  The  castings 
could  then  be  bored,  turned,  or  milled  in  the  machine 
department  to  drawings  supplied  and  afterwards  delivered 
and  paid  for  in"  the  regular  way  of  trade,  thus  furnishing 
serviceable  practice  to  several  branches  of  students,  as  well 
as  being  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  institution. 

Take,  for  instance,  an  ordinary  sewer-head  for  the  city, 
for  which  castings  there  is  always  a  steady  demand.  These 
castings  could  be  made  very  serviceable  as  examples  for 
illustration.  A  suitable  set  of  flasks  should  be  made  to 
mould  it  in  green-sand  vertically,  the  core  to  be  made 
in  the  pattern  used.  The  same  pattern  could  be  also  used 
as  an  example  of  bedding-in,  using  a  cope  only  to  cover 
with.  Another  pattern  could  be  made  in  halves  for  the 
same  casting  with  flasks  to  suit  for  casting  horizontally. 
In  this  case  a  dry-sand  core  could  be  used,  also  a  green -sand 
one  on  a  horizontal  arbor.  Lastly,  the  centre  spindle  and 
sweep-boards  could  be  brought  into  requisition  for  mould- 
ing this  casting,  exclusive  of  pattern  or  flasks,  forming  both 
the  outer  and  inner  surfaces  with  bricks  and  loam. 

The  above-described  examples,  simple  as  they  seem, 
afford  scope  for  a  considerable  amount  of  ingenuity,  and 
almost  every  branch  of  the  moulder's  art  is  called  into 
practice  to  produce  these  castings  in  the  several  ways  de- 
scribed. 

The  instructor  should  be  qualified  to  teach  all  the 
branches  of  moulding  enumerated  above;  and  most  as- 
suredly his  sins  will  find  him  out  if  he  is  in  any  sense 
deficient,  there  being  no  one  at  hand  able  to  furnish  the 
talent  wherewith  to  cover  his  own  shortcomings — some- 
thing of  altogether  too  frequent  occurrence  in  the  foun- 
dries. 

The  importance  of  having  men  of  ability  and  judgment 
as  instructors  will  be  apparent,  even  to  the  uninitiated, 
when  they  consider  that  all  the  necessary  tools  and  their 


Technical  Education.  463  Technical  Education. 

appurtenances  requisite  for  these  dissimilar  operations 
must  be  devised  by  him  in  such  variety  and  design  as  will 
not  only  answer  present  needs,  but  serve  also  as  standard 
models  of  their  kind,  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration when  it  is  desired  to  inculcate  high-class  methods 
of  construction  in  the  minds  of  the  students. 

Another  very  suitable  object  which  might  be  chosen  as 
a  study  in  all  the  branches  of  moulding  is  a  twenty-four-inch 
steam-cylinder,  to  be  obtained  from  one  of  the  large  pump 
and  engine  works.  This  casting,  in  addition  to  the  oppor- 
tunities presented  for  moulding  under  altered  circum- 
stances, offers  the  further  inducement  that  subsequent 
boring  and  finishing  in  the  machine  department  would 
reveal  at  once  any  imperfections  arising  from  either  faulty 
moulds  or  unsuitable  iron.  The  construction  of  such  a 
mould  entirely  in  green-sand,  to  be  cast  horizontally,  would 
call  forth  some  very  excellent  practice  in  the  arrange- 
ments for  pouring,  in  order  to  obtain  clean  castings  in 
the  bore;  also  to  practically  demonstrate  the  greater  nicety 
and  more  delicate  workmanship  displayed  in  producing 
castings  this  way  than  are  required  for  the  same  job  in  dry 
sand. 

The  latter  useful  and  effective  style  of  moulding  can  be 
very  ably  illustrated  by  such  a  cylinder.  Different  modes 
of  finishing  and  closing,  in  fact  all  the  chief  operations 
demanded  for  dry-sand  work  of  greater  magnitude,  may  by 
this  one  illustration  be  made  exceedingly  plain. 

As  in  dry  sand  so  in  loam:  the  requisite  equipment  for 
the  production  of  such  a  casting  in  loam  could  be  made  so 
as  to  represent  a  facsimile  of  that  required  for  moulding 
the  largest  cylinders  for  the  government  cruisers. 

Firms  making  a  specialty  of  ship-propellers  would  be 
willing  to  accept  castings  produced  at  these  institutions 
at  their  market  value;  consequently  this  very  interesting 
and  highly  instructive  phase  of  the  moulder's  art  could  be 


Technical  Education.  464  Technical  Education. 

learned  more  thoroughly  in  the  school  than  in  the  foundry. 
The  sizes  chosen  for  this  purpose  might  range  from  two 
feet  to  five  feet  in  diameter,  with  varying  pitches  to 
accommodate  the  obliging  firm,  who  would  regulate  them 
according  to  the  stock  generally  carried.  Here,  again,  we 
have  unmistakably  good  practice  for  the  pattern-making 
department  in  providing  the  necessary  moulding-boxes  with 
the  single-wing  attachment  for  moulding  small  wheels  in 
green-sand  sectionally — a  method  which  exacts  the  nicest 
manipulation  and  requires  considerable  practice  before 
perfection  is  attained.  For  casting  wheels  in  dry  sand  the 
instructor  would  teach  how  to  construct  the  requisite  sets  of 
flasks  for  moulding  from  a  fixed  spindle  and  one  wing  at  a 
time,  in  flasks  secured  to  a  foundation-plate,  using  separate 
copes  for  the  upper  side  of  the  blade.  Practice  of  this  class 
develops  the  constructive  faculties,  and  expands  the  mind 
beyond  the  limits  of  an  ordinary  moulder's  experience. 

The  larger  wheels  would  make  good  examples  for  loam- 
work,  for,  in  addition  to  the  practice  afforded  in  manipu- 
lating moulds  with  the  spindle  and  sweep-board,  the  right 
use  of  the  angle-board  could  be  effectively  explained.  A 
5-foot  wheel  would  be  large  enough  for  a  practical  illustra- 
tion of  every  principle  involved  in  producing  one  15  feet 
diameter  by  the  same  method. 

The  value  of  these  instructions  in  propeller-moulding 
would  be  considerably  enhanced  by  procuring  an  old  cast- 
ing about  3  feet  6  inches  diameter,  from  which  to  mould  one 
occasionally  in  green-sand:  by  bedding  in  the  sand  with  the 
upper  tips  of  the  blades  level  with  the  floor,  forming  the 
joints  at  each  blade,  and  lifting  out  the  hanging-sand  with 
lifters  hooked  on  the  bars  of  an  ordinary  4-foot-square  flat 
cope.  This  is  a  very  useful  class  of  experience,  and  much 
needed  almost  everywhere. 

The  above-described  methods  of  moulding  propeller- 
wheels  serve  as  excellent  illustrations  of  the  several  modes 


Technical  Education.  465  Technical  Education. 

of  moulding  of  which  they  are  representative,  the  first 
being  a  specimen  of  sectional  moulding  applicable  to  work 
other  than  wheels ;  the  second  shows  how  the  centre 
spindle  may  become  of  almost  universal  use  in  producing 
certain  classes  of  castings  from  a  simple  section  of  the 
whole  pattern,  commonly  provided.  The  angle-board  used 
for  forming  the  blade  in  loam  is  a  study  in  itself.  Since 
its  introduction  for  the  above  purpose,  very  many  similar 
objects  are  thus  formed  by  the  moulder,  and  considerable 
pattern-making  saved,  as  well  as  cost  for  the  mechanical 
contrivances  formerly  used.  For  instance,  grooved  drums, 
formerly  moulded  in  loam  by  revolving  two  or  three  grooves 
from  top  to  bottom  of  the  outside  cope  by  means  of  a 
central  threaded  spindle,  are  now  formed  by  one  revolution 
of  a  full-length  sweep-board  travelling  on  a  guide  corre- 
sponding to  one  turn  of  the  thread  desired. 

A  12-inch  ordinary  socket-pipe  10  feet  long,  such  as  are 
used  for  city  purposes,  could  without  difficulty  be  obtained. 
By  moulding  these  in  the  several  ways  to  be  described, 
considerable  knowledge  of  an  extraordinary  kind  is  to  be 
gained.  By  preparing  a  set  of  cylindrical  flasks  or  casings, 
made  purposely  in  three  sections  lengthwise,  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  moulding  extra-long  hydraulic  cylinders  and  rams, 
guns,  etc.,  may  be  conveniently  explained.  Opportunities 
are  here  presented  for  a  nice  adjustment  of  the  sections  by 
such  effective  means  as  will  insure  a  true  vertical  mould 
free  of  seams  when  all  are  closed  together.  Some  very  good 
practice  may  be  introduced  here;  and  along  with  many 
other  schemes  for  obtaining  the  mould  in  these  flasks,  let 
a  short  plug  be  drawn  through  all  the  sections,  together  and 
separate,  forming  the  head  and  socket,  with  loose  pieces, 
or  in  any  other  way  which  the  ingenuity  of  the  instructor 
may  suggest.  This  would,  of  course,  be  a  dry-sand  mould, 
and  must  have  a  loam-core  struck  on  a  barrel  made  for  the 
occasion — a  class  of  core-making  too  little  practised  outside 


Technical  Education.  466  Technical  Education. 

of  the  pipe-foundries  nowadays.  This  mould,  when  dried 
and  closed,  must  be  cast  vertically. 

Another  way  is  to  make  a  full  pattern  in  halves,  with  a 
half  core-box  and  sweep  for  striking  off  the  upper  side  of 
core.  In  this  case  half-flasks  should  be  used  for  moulding 
in  green-sand  and  casting  horizontally;  the  core  to  be 
formed  in  the  aforesaid  box  on  a  full-length  cast  arbor  in 
green-sand  also.  This  will  furnish  excellent  practice  in 
another  class  of  core-making  too  long  neglected. 

The  same  flasks  must  be  fitted  at  the  ends  with  parallels 
and  bearings  for  carrying  a  centre  spindle  horizontally 
with  which  to  sweep  out  each  half  of  the  mould  in  plastic 
material,  exclusive  of  the  pattern.  The  cores  in  this  in- 
stance may  be  made  in  dry-sand  halves  and  jointed,  to  vary 
the  method  somewhat.  As  this  mould  is  prepared  for 
drying,  it  may  be  cast  alternately  in  a  horizontal  and  verti- 
cal position,  the  latter  method  calling  for  some  special 
arrangement  for  hoisting  into  a  vertical  position  and  lower- 
ing in  the  pit,  as  well  as  serving  to  illustrate  the  different 
modes  of  gating  and  securing  the  core. 

Some  suitable  specimens  of  hollow  ware  should  also  be 
introduced  into  these  schools.  There  are  thousands  of 
moulders  who  are  to  day  as  ignorant  of  the  processes  con- 
nected with  this  kind  of  moulding  as  were  the  Dutchmen 
who  failed  in  making  the  first  pot  at  Coalbrookdale  in  the 
year  1709.  The  flasks  used  for  this  purpose  are  ingenious 
and  suggestive,  and  the  very  neat  manipulations  of  the 
practised  hollow-ware  moulder  are  of  a  kind  calculated  to 
infuse  new  life  into  the  somewhat  slow  and  slipshod  ways 
of  the  ordinary  workman  who  attempts  to  make  this  par- 
ticular class  of  work. 

The  eye  and  hand  of  the  ambitious  loam-moulder  might 
receive  training  of  a  high  order  by  assiduous  practice  on 
some  object  similar  to  a  Y  pipe,  or  any  other  analogous 
surface  of  ever-varying  dimensions  and  constant  change  of 


Technical  Education.  467  Technical  Education. 

curve — something  possessing  a  surface  impossible  to  form 
except  by  the  hand,  assisted  by  gauges  and  templates. 
Exercises  of  a  similar  kind  may  be  given  on  green-sand  sur- 
faces by  the  use  of  forming-strips  and  sweeps,  with  a  final 
smoothing  over  of  the  tools.  These  exercises  need  not 
necessarily  be  practised  on  dumb  moulds;  the  more  ad- 
vanced could  be  taught  to  form  surfaces  corresponding 
to  sketches  given,  such  surfaces  to  receive  the  treatment 
necessary  for  the  purpose  of  casting  metal  thereon. 

The  changes  lately  brought  about  by  the  introduction  of 
a  profuse  display  of  fine-art  work  in  modern  buildings, 
most  of  which  it  is  now  desired  to  produce  in  cast  iron,  has 
created  a  demand  for  moulders  with  some  experience  in 
such  work;  and  because  these  castings  have  hitherto  been 
chiefly  made  in  metals  other  than  cast  iron,  it  has  been  found 
difficult  to  supply  this  demand,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
fine-art  work  in  cast  iron  requires  to  be  made  in  material 
to  which  the  ordinary  worker  in  bronze  and  other  alloys 
is  unaccustomed.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  demand  will 
continue,  and  the  subject  should  receive  immediate  atten- 
tion in  the  technical  schools,  where  special  classes  could  be 
taught  the  entire  process  of  statue-  and  figure-founding, 
including  the  cire-perdue  and  other  modes  of  procedure 
connected  with  taking  casts  in  metal  and  plaster,  confin- 
ing the  study  as  near  as  possible  to  such  classes  of  work 
as  would  be  likely  to  find  its  way  into  our  iron  and  brass 
foundries. 

It  will  be  very  evident  to  those  who  are  at  all  interested 
in  foundry  instruction  at  the  technical  schools  that  no  in- 
stitution of  the  kind  should  be  without  a  modern  moulding- 
machine  of  acknowledged  merit.  This  is  a  comparatively 
new  study,  and  is  claiming  the  attention  of  founders  more 
to-day  than  it  has  ever  done  in  the  past,  simply  because 
there  has  been  a  nearer  approach  made  to  hand-manipula- 
tion by  the  introduction  of  devices  which  have  for  their 


Teeming.  468  Telegraph  wire. 

object  the  correct  ramming  of  the  moulds  within  the 
flasks.  Some  of  these  devices  are  automatic  and  trust- 
worthy, and  the  quantity  as  well  as  quality  of  work  accom- 
plished in  a  given  time  bears  unmistakable  evidence  to  the 
justice  of  their  claims  to  universal  recognition  and  adop- 
tion wherever  large  numbers  of  duplicate  castings  of  a  cer- 
tain kind  are  in  active  demand. 

A  good  machine  with  stripping-plate  attachment  would 
be  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  school ;  the  minds  of  the 
students  could  be  exercised  in  discovering  methods  for 
overcoming  difficulties  presented  when  the  joining  surfaces 
are  irregular,  and  in  framing  schemes  for  automatically 
delivering  such  projections  as  are  oblique  to  the  general 
surfaces  of  the  pattern. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  school  of  technology  has  been 
more  successful  than  the  Stevens  Institute,  from  which 
place  have  been  graduated  a  large  number  of  engineers 
whose  acknowledged  ability  has  fully  proved  what  can  be 
done  when  competent  instructors  and  judicious  manage- 
ment are  allowed  full  scope.  Is  it  too  much  to  ask  that 
the  moulder  be  allowed  similar  opportunities  for  distin- 
guishing himself? 

Teeming. — This  term  is  synonymous  with  pouring, 
and  is  principally  employed  by  steel-melters  to  signify  the 
act  of  pouring  metal  out  of  the  crucible.  Pits  in  which 
the  ingot-moulds  are  vertically  arranged,  for  better  con- 
venience in  casting  the  steel  with  crucibles,  are  by  them 
invariably  termed  teeming -holes.  Many  moulders  also  em- 
ploy this  term  as  the  equivalent  of  pouring. 

Teetor  Moulding-machine.— See  MOULDING- 
MACHINE. 

Telegraph  and  Telephone  Wire. — These  wires, 
when  made  from  the  ordinary  bronzes,  were  found  to  be 


Temper.  469  Temperature. 

insufficiently  conductive.  A  silicon-bronze  has  now  been 
substituted,  which  is  equal  in  strength  to  the  best  phos- 
phor-bronze, much  superior  as  a  conductor  of  electricity, 
and  much  lighter.  The  alloy,  when  produced  from  the 
prepared  compound,  contains,  in  telephone  wire,  copper 
99.94,  tin  0.03,  silicon  0.02.  For  telegraph  wire,  copper 
97.12,  tin  1.14,  silicon  0.05,  zinc  1.62,  with  iron  a  trace  in 
each.  The  compound  which  forms  the  base  for  this  mix- 
ture is  obtained  by  fusing  the  copper  in  a  lead  crucible 
with  carbonate  of  soda,  fluorsilicate  of  potassium,  chloride 
of  soda,  chloride  of  calcium,  and  glass.  The  oxides  are  by 
this  means  absorbed  by  the  acid  flux  of  the  silica.  Silicon- 
bronze  thus  obtained  has  about  70  per  cent  of  the  electrical 
conductivity  of  copper,  while  phosphor-bronze  has  but  30, 
and  steel  something  over  10. 

Temper. — The  operation  of  moistening  and  mixing 
sand  and  clay  to  the  right  consistency  for  moulding,  is  in 
some  localities  termed  tempering. 

The  hardness  of  steel  is  changed  by  the  process  of  tem- 
pering. See  TEMPERING. 

Temper  is  also  the  name  of  a  pewterer's  alloy.  See  PEW- 
TERER'S  TEMPER;  PEWTER. 

Temperature  is  a  term  that  implies  a  definite  degree 
of  sensible  heat,  the  thermometer  being  the  standard  of 
comparison.  The  expansion  of  bodies  by  heat  furnishes 
the  means  for  measuring  changes  of  temperature.  Liquids 
which  are  easily  affected  are  used  for  measuring  variations 
in  moderate  temperatures.  Solids,  which  require  a  higher 
degree  of  heat  to  expand  them  perceptibly,  are  used  for 
measuring  variations  in  elevated  temperatures ;  therefore 
we  have  the  thermometer  for  the  former,  the  pyrometer 
answering  in  the  latter  case.  The  thermometer  is  an  in- 
strument in  which  a  liquid,  usually  mercury,  is  employed 


Temperature.  4^0  Temperature. 

for  ascertaining  variations  in  moderate  temperatures,  and 
consists  of  a  tube  closed  at  one  end,  the  other  end  termi- 
nating in  a  bulb.  The  bulb  and  a  portion  of  the  tube  con- 
tain mercury,  and,  as  the  air  is  all  excluded  before  sealing 
the  tube,  the  space  above  the  mercury  is  vacuum.  The 
mercury  expands  by  heat  and  rises  in  the  tube.  A  fall  in 
the  temperature  contracts  the  mercury  and  it  falls.  A 
graduated  scale  beside  the  tube  measures  the  rise  and  fall 
of  the  mercury  accurately.  Fahrenheit's  scale  is  divided 
thus  :  The  space  between  freezing  and  boiling  is  divided 
into  180  degrees,  but  instead  of  starting  at  the  freezing- 
point,  as  in  Reaumur's  and  the  centigrade,  Fahrenheit 
determined  by  the  aid  of  snow  and  ice  to  find  the  lowest 
possible  cold  and  make  that  zero.  By  this  means  he  got 
the  mercury  down  to  32°  below  freezing-point,  and  com- 
menced to  count  from  there.  Hence  on  Fahrenheit's  scale 
freezing  occurs  at  32°,  the  boiling-point,  at  212°;  when, 
therefore,  the  mercury  stands  at  0  or  zero,  it  is  32  degrees 
below  the  freezing-point.  In  Reaumur's  scale  the  freezing- 
point  is  called  0,  the  boiling-point  80.  In  the  centigrade 
the  freezing-point  is  0,  the  boiling-point  100.  When  ther- 
mometer degrees  are  mentioned,  it  is  usual  to  indicate  the 
scale  referred  to  by  their  initial  letter.  Thus:  50°  F. 
means  50  degrees  on  Fahrenheit's  scale  ;  20°  E.,  20  degrees 
on  Reaumur's;  and  10°  C.,  10  degrees  centigrade. 

The  following  are  rules  for  mutually  reducing  degrees  of 
temperature — Reaumur,  Centigrade,  Fahrenheit. 

REAMUR  DEGREES  TO  DEGREES  CENTIGRADE. 
Divide  by  4,  and  add  product  to  number  of  degrees  given. 

Example:  56°  -4-  4  =  14°;  56°  -f  14°  =  70°. 
REAUMUR  DEGREES  TO  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT. 
Above  freezing. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4,  and  subtract  32°  from 

the  product. 

Example  :  20°  X  9  -*-  4  +  32°  =  77°. 

Below  freezing. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4,  and  subtract  32°. 
Example  :  -  20°  X  9  -r-  4  -  32°  =  --  13°. 


Tempering.  471  Templet. 

CENTIGRADE  DEGREES  TO  DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT. 
Above  freezing. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5,  and  add  32°  to  prod- 
uct. 

Example  :  25°  X  9  -*-  5  +  32°  =  77°. 

Below  freezing. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5,   then  take  the  dif- 
ference between  32°  and  the  result  so  obtained. 
Example:  -  30°  X  9  -i-  5  =  54°;  54°  -  32°  =  22°. 
CENTIGRADE  DEGREES  TO  DEGREES  REAUMUR. 
Divide  by  5  and  subtract  product  from  number  of  degrees  given. 

Exjimple  :  70°  -4-  5  =  14°;  70°  -  14°  =  56°. 
To  REDUCE  FAHRENHEIT  DEGREES  TO  DEGREES  CENTIGRADE. 
When  temperature  given  is  above  zero. — Subtractj32°,  multiply  by  5, 

and  divide  the  product  by  9. 
Example  :  77°  -  32°  X  5  -5-  9  =  25°. 
When  temperature  given  is  below  zero. — Add  32°,  and  proceed  as 

above. 

Example :  -  22°  +  32°  X  5  -f-  9  =  -  30°. 
FAHRENHEIT  DEGREES  TO  DEGREES  REAUMUR. 
Above  zero. — Subtract  32°,  multiply  by  4,  and  divide  product  by  9. 

Example  :  77°  -  32°  X  4  H-  9  =  20°. 
Below  zero.— Add  32°,  and  proceed  as  above. 
Example  :  -  13°  -f  32°  X  4  -f-  9  =  -  20°. 

(See  table  on  next  page.) 

Tempering.— When  steel  is  suddenly  cooled  from  a 
high  temperature  it  becomes  hard  and  brittle,  but  when 
slowly  cooled  it  is  very  tough  and  pliable.  The  process  of 
bringing  steel  to  the  several  degrees  of  hardness  for  use  in 
the  arts  and  manufactures  is  called  tempering.  This  term 
is  usually  applied  to  mean  a  combination  of  the  hardening 
and  annealing  processes.  According  to  the  temperature  to 
which  the  hardened  steel  has  been  heated  before  annealing, 
so  is  the  diminution  of  the  hardness  affected  by  the  process. 
See  STEEL;  RESTORING  BURNT  STEEL;  DIES,  To  HARDEN; 
ANNEALING. 

Templet. — All  formers,  sweeps,  strickles,  etc.,  are  in 
some  foundries  improperly  called  templates.  The  template 


Temperature. 


472 


Temperature, 


EQUIVALENT  TEMPERATURES— REAUMUR,  CENTI- 
GRADE, AND  FAHRENHEIT. 


Reau. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

R6au. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

80 

100. 

212. 

28 

35. 

95. 

79 

98.75 

209.75 

27 

33.75 

92.75 

78 

97.5 

207.5 

26 

32.5 

90.5 

77 

96.25 

205.25 

25 

31.25 

88.25 

76 

95. 

203. 

24 

30. 

86. 

75 

93.75 

200.75 

23 

28.75 

83.75 

74 

92.5 

198.5 

22 

27.5 

81.5 

73 

91.25 

196.25 

21 

26.25 

79.25 

72 

90. 

194. 

20 

25. 

77. 

71 

88.75 

191.75 

19 

23.75 

74.75 

70 

87.5 

189.5 

18 

22.5 

72.5 

69 

86.25 

187.25 

17 

21.25 

70.25 

68 

85. 

185. 

16 

20. 

68. 

67 

83.75 

182.75 

15 

18.75 

65.75 

66 

82.5 

180.5 

14 

17.5 

68.5 

65 

81.25 

178.25 

13 

16.25 

61.25 

64 

80. 

176. 

12 

15. 

59. 

63 

78.75 

173.75 

11 

13.75 

56.75 

62 

77.5 

171.5 

10 

12.5 

54.5 

61 

76.25 

169.25 

9 

11.25 

52.25 

60 

75. 

167. 

8 

10. 

50. 

59 

73.75 

164.75 

7 

8.75 

47.75 

58 

72.5 

162.5 

6 

7.5 

45.5 

57 

71.25 

160.25 

5 

6.25 

43.25 

56 

70. 

158. 

4 

5. 

41. 

55 

68.75 

155.75 

3 

3.75 

88.75 

54 

67.5 

153.5 

2 

2.5 

36.5 

53 

66.25 

151.25 

1 

1.25 

34.25 

52 

65. 

149. 

0 

0. 

32. 

51 

63.75 

146.75 

1 

1.25 

29.75 

50 

62.5 

144.5 

2 

2.5 

27.5 

49 

61.25 

142.25 

3 

3.75 

25.25 

48 

60. 

140. 

4 

5. 

23. 

47 

58.75 

137.75 

5 

6.25 

20.75 

46 

57.5 

135.5 

6 

7.5 

18.5 

45 

56.25 

133.25 

7 

8.75 

16.25 

44 

55. 

131. 

8 

10. 

14. 

43 

53.75 

128.75 

9 

11.25 

11.75 

42 

52.5 

126.5 

10 

12.5 

9.5 

41 

51.25 

124.25     . 

11 

13.75 

7.25 

40 

50. 

122. 

12 

15. 

5. 

39 

48.75 

119.75 

13 

16.25 

2.75 

38 

47.5 

117.5 

14 

17.5 

0.5 

37 

46.25 

115.25 

15 

18  75 

1.75 

36 

45. 

113. 

16 

20. 

4. 

35 

43.75 

110.75 

17 

21.25 

6.25 

34 

42.5 

108.5 

18 

22.5 

8.5 

33 

41.25 

106.25 

19 

23.75 

10.75 

32 

40. 

104. 

20 

26. 

13. 

31 

38.75 

101.75 

30 

37.5 

99. 

29 

36.25 

97.25 

See  PYROMETER;  HEAT. 


Tenacity.  473  Testing-machines. 

is  simply  an  outline,  in  wood  or  iron  of  the  whole  or  part 
of  a  mould  or  pattern  in  course  of  construction,  and  serves 
to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  work  as  it  progresses.  A  frame 
or  board  shaped  to  the  outline  of  a  pipe,  with  lines  to  mark 
off  the  true  position  and  angle  of  the  flanges,  etc.,  or  any 
other  similarly  devised  guide,  is  a  tempaet  also. 

Tenacity. — It  is  easier  to  pull  asunder  a  bar  of  lead 
than  a  bar  of  steel  of  equal  dimensions.  This  proves  that 
the  molecules  of  some  solids  cohere  more  strongly  than 
others.  A  solid  is  said  to  be  ruptured  when  it  is  thus  forcibly 
pulled  asunder,  and  the  power  that  resists  this  rupture  is 
called  tenacity.  If  we  find  how  much  force  is  required  to 
pull  asunder  rods  of  different  solids  having  equal  dimen- 
sions, we  can  then  determine  their  relative  tenacity.  Te- 
nacity is  also  that  quality  of  cohesiveness  in  bodies  that 
causes  them  to  adhere  to  other  bodies,  as  glutinous,  stick- 
iness, etc.  See  COHESION;  ADHESION;  STRENGTH  OF  MA- 
TERIALS; M.ETALS. 

Tensile  Strength. — See  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Terne  Plate  are  thin  iron  plates  cleaned,  and  coated 
with  tin  by  dipping  into  a  molten  bath  of  the  latter  metal. 
See  TINNING. 

Terra-cotta. — This  name  is  applied  to  figures,  vases, 
-tatues,  architectural  decorations,  etc.,  that  have  been  cast 
or  modelled  in  a  compound  of  potter's-clay  mixed  with  fine 
sand,  pulverized  potsherds,  calcined  flints,  etc.  These 
articles  are  burnt  in  the  kiln  after  being  dried  in  the  air. 
Some  of  these  productions  resist  the  unfavorable  influence 
of  the  weather  much  better  than  some  stone.  See  STONE. 

Testing  Machines. — The  great  variety  of  testing- 
machines  now  in  the  market  are  an  evidence  of  their  grow- 


Testing- machines.  4<4  Testing  machines. 

ing  importance.  Wide-awake  foundry-men  everywhere 
realize  the  necessity  for  strict  inspection  of  all  the  pig  iron 
they  purchase  in  order  that  their  castings  may  be  made  to 
meet  every  requirement  at  the  least  possible  cost.  By 
means  of  the  simplest  of  these  machines,  a  sample  of  pig 
iron  can  he  tested  and  its  quality  determined  with  approxi- 
mate nearness  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time, 
so  that  purchases  need  not  be  made  blindfold  as  has 
been  too  frequently  the  case  in  the  past.  A  more  elaborate 
system  of  tests  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  Keep's  test, 
which  reveals  every  phase  of  a  true  test  with  the  nicest  ac- 
curacy: gradual  load,  impact,  fluidity,  tendency  to  curve, 
shrinkage,  and  deflection  are  at  once  determined  by  this 
machine  in  a  manner  truly  astonishing.  The  Waterloo 
Transverse-testing  Machine  is  arranged  with  the  weighing- 
beam  and  system  of  multiplying  levers,  all  tested  and  regu- 
lated in  accord  with  the  United  States  standard  of  weights 
at  Washington,  D.C  ,  and  delicately  adjusted  to  weigh  the 
strain  exerted  on  the  specimen.  The  power  exerting  the 
strain  on  test-piece  is  produced  by  a  worm  and  gear.  The 
best  of  materials  are  used,  and  the  workmanship  is  first- 
class  in  every  particular. 

The  specimen  in  process  of  testing  has  one  end  resting 
upon  an  A-shaped  piece  of  metal,  the  other  end  being  sus- 
pended from  the  lower  lever  of  the  machine. 

The  strain  upon  the  test-piece  is  produced  by  turning  a 
wheel  below  in  front  of  the  frame,  which  causes  the  stir- 
rup, which  is  located  at  the  centre  point  of  specimen,  to 
bear  down  upon  the  same,  and  the  strain  thus  produced  is 
transmitted  to  the  weighing-beam  through  the  intermediate 
lever. 

The  weighing-beam  is  kept  in  equipoise  by  shifting  the 
poise,  the  power  being  applied  simultaneously  with  the 
movement  of  the  poise,  and  continuing  the  operation  until 
the  test  is  concluded.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  weigh- 


Thicknessing.  475  Tied-core. 

ing-beam  is  balanced  before  the  testing  is  begun  or  the 
test-piece  in  position.  Additional  standard  weights  are 
supplied  to  suspend  on  the  small  end  of  the  weighing-beam, 
as  occasion  requires,  to  balance  the  strain  up  to  the  full 
strength  of  the  test-specimen. 

This  machine  can  be  arranged  to  test  longer  specimens 
up  to  four  or  five  feet,  at  extra  cost.  An  indicator  to  show 
elasticity  of  specimens  being  tested  can  be  added.  See 
TEIAL  CAST. 

Thermometer. — See  TEMPEEATUEE. 

Thicknessing  is  the  mode  of  obtaining  a  cast  in 
metal,  or  plaster,  by  applying  a  coating  or  thickness  over 
one  surface  of  mould,  produced  by  the  sweep,  strickle, 
block,  or  model,  from  which  the  remaining  surface  is  then 
obtained  and  the  thickness  removed.  The  space  previously 
occupied  by  the  thickness  being  filled  with  metal  or  plaster, 
constitutes  the  cast.  See  BACKING-OUT;  KETTLES;  STATUE- 
FOUNDING. 

Three-high  Rolls  are  employed  for  rolling  light 
merchant-iron.  They  are  a  combination  of  three  rolls  in 
one  pair  of  housings.  The  middle  roll  in  the  series  drives 
the  upper  and  lower  ones  in  opposite  directions,  delivering 
the  bar  at  one  side,  to  be  returned  by  simply  changing  from 
one  side  to  the  other  of  the  middle  roll  without  any  rever- 
sal of  motion.  See  EOLLS. 

Three-part  Flask.— See  FLASKS. 

Tied-core.— Two  halves  of  dry-sand  core  bound  to- 
gether with  one  or  more  strands  of  wires.  The  wire  ends 
are  made  to  overlap  each  other  sufficient  to  make  a  twisted 


Tie-rods.  476  Tilt-hamttier. 

junction.  Similar  fastenings  are  of  great  service  on  a 
small  brick  core  that  has  no  binding-rings  built  in  it.  The 
wires  may  be  wrapped  round  before  roughing  up;  they  are 
then  hidden  by  the  loam.  See 


Tie-rods.—  Kods  of  iron,  used  for  stiffening  unsup- 
ported portions  of  moulds  and  cores.  Grates,  or  grids,  make 
the  most  trustworthy  supports,  inasmuch  as  the  stiffening 
influence  is  imparted  in  every  direction.  This  can  only  be 
approximately  accomplished  by  tie-rods  with  alternate  layers 
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  See  COKE-IRON;  GRIDS. 

Tie-  wire.  —  Wire  of  different  sizes,  used  for  tying  cores 
with.  This  should  always  be  annealed  and  of  the  best 
quality,  as  the  connections  are  invariably  made  by  twisting 
the  ends  together.  Poor  wire  breaks  during  the  operation, 
and  not  infrequently  have  we  seen  the  mould  completely 
spoiled  through  a  rupture  occurring  after  all  was  closed 
and  considered  safe.  See  TIED-CORE. 

Tile.  —  Thin  bricks,  or  plates  of  baked  clay,  differing  in 
shape  according  to  their  use.  They  are  employed  for  the 
roofs  of  buildings,  also  for  pavements.  Some  finer  kinds 
for  the  latter  purpose  are  known  as  encaustic  tiles. 

Tilted  Steel  is  cemented  steel  made  stronger  by 
hammering  under  the  tilt.  See  CEMENTATION. 

Tilt-hammer.  —  Used  for  shingling,  and  also  for 
working  finished  iron.  It  consists  of  a  long  lever,  with 
hammer-head  attached  at  one  end,  which  is  operated  by  a 
cam  at  the  other.  The  fulcrum  is  placed  nearest  to  the 
cam,  which  is  generally  a  wheel  with  about  a  dozen  projec- 
tions, called  wipes.  As  the  cam  revolves,  the  short  end  of 
the  lever  is  borno  down  by  the  wipes,  lifting  the  hammer- 


Tin.  477  Tin. 

head  until  the  wipe  on  the  cam  has  cleared,  when  the 
hammer  drops  upon  the  work  on  the  anvil.  Each  wipe  in 
succession  engages  the  lever,  causing  the  hammer  to  rise 
and  fall  with  considerable  force  and  rapidity. 

Tin. — This  metal  has  been  known  from  very  early 
times,  but  its  ores  have  been  found  in  a  few  places  only; 
the  metallic  tin  is  not  found  in  nature.  Chief  among 
the  European  sources  of  tin  are  the  mines  in  Cornwall, 
where  it  is  found  as  tinstone.  The  Phoenicians  and 
Romans  obtained  from  these  mines  all  the  tin  employed  by 
them  in  the  manufacture  of  bronze.  Malacca,  Borneo,  and 
Mexico  also  yield  tinstone.  In  the  preparation  of  this 
metal  the  tinstone  is  crushed  and  washed,  and  the  clean 
ore  is  then  put  into  the  reverberatory  furnace  along  with 
fuel  and  a  small  portion  of  lime.  By  this  means  the  oxide 
is  reduced,  and  the  liquid  metal,  together  with  the  slag, 
consisting  of  calcic  silicate,  falls  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
furnace.  The  blocks  of  tin  thus  obtained  are  still  impure, 
and  require  further  refining  by  gradually  melting  out  the 
pure  tin,  leaving  an  impure  alloy  behind.  The  refined  tin 
thus  obtained  is  principally  used  for  tin-plate,  the  remain- 
der being  the  block-tin  of  commerce.  The  manner  of  pro- 
ducing grain-tin  is  to  plunge  blocks  of  the  metal  into  a  tin- 
bath,  where  they  are  caused  to  assume  a  crystallized  nature, 
after  which  they  are  either  broken  up  with  the  hammer, 
or  allowed  to  fall  from  a  great  height.  The  long  grains 
are  caused  by  the  latter  process. 

Tin  is  a  brilliant,  silver-white  metal,  softer  than  gold, 
slightly  ductile,  and  very  malleable,  as  evidenced  by  the 
common  tin-foil,  which  is  no  more  than  T-oVo  °f  an  mcn 
thick.  It  melts  at  442°.  The  peculiar  cracking  sound 
emitted  when  tin  is  bent  is  owing  to  the  disturbance  of 
its  crystalline  structure.  Owing  to  its  weak  affinity  for 
oxygen,  it  tarnishes  but  slightly  on  exposure  to  air  or 


Tin.  478  Tin. 

moisture,  and  is  therefore  valuable  for  domestic  utensils. 
It  is  this  property  that  renders  it  so  useful  as  a  coating  to 
prevent  other  metals  from  oxidizing.  The  common  tin- 
ware is  simply  thin  sheets  of  iron  coated  with  this  metal. 
Tin  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid.  If  this  metal  be 
heated  beyond  its  melting-point,  with  access  of  air,  it 
becomes  converted  into  the  binoxide,  and  burns  with  a 
brilliant  white  light.  It  is  certainly  one  of  the  earliest 
known  metals,  as  it  enters  into  the  composition  of  bronze, 
of  which  alloy  many  of  the  ancient  statues,  weapons,  and 
tools  were  made.  Most  metals  are  made  harder,  whiter, 
and  more  fusible  by  tin.  It  forms  the  principal  ingredient 
of  Britannia  metal,  pewter,  and  many  solders.  The  finest 
pewter  is  mainly  composed  of  tin,  with  some  temper.  See 
PEWTER. 

Tin  forms  an  amalgam  with  mercury,  with  which  to 
silver  mirrors  and  other  objects.  Tin-foil  is  placed  on  a 
flat  slab,  then  covered  with  mercury,  and  the  glass  placed 
over  it,  when,  weights  being  applied,  the  superfluous 
mercury  escapes,  leaving  a  film  of  the  silvery  amalgam 
adhering  to  the  glass.  See  MERCURY. 

Tin  is  hardened  and  made  more  silvery  by  alloying  with 
antimony;  zinc  has  the  effect  of  cleansing  it.  See  ANTI- 
MONY; ZINC. 

Melted  pewter  is  prevented  from  oxidizing  by  letting  a 
piece  of  zinc  float  upon  the  surface  of  the  alloy  while 
casting. 

One  ninth  of  tin  added  to  copper  makes  gun-metal  or 
bronze,  which  is  tough  and  rigid,  but  can  neither  be  rolled 
nor  drawn — a  wonderful  change  from  the  original  qualities 
of  either  metal  when  unalloyed;  and  what  is  perhaps  more 
remarkable,  if  further  additions,  up  to  about  one  fourth, 
of  the  soft  tin  be  employed,  the  alloy  is  made  hard  and 
elastic.  A  further  increase  up  to  tin  1,  copper  2,  and 
the  alloy  becomes  so  brittle  that  steel  tools  fail  to 


Tin  Enamel.  479  Tinning. 

make  any  impression  upon  it,  except  to  crumble  it ;  its 
malleability  is  completely  destroyed,  a  brilliant  white 
alloy,  highly  crystalline,  having  taken  its  place,  with  no 
trace  of  the  red  copper  in  its  texture.  Such  an  alloy  is 
susceptible  of  a  brilliant  polish  owing  to  its  extremely 
close  and  hard  nature,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  used  for 
speculums;  but  special  means  must  be  employed  for  grind- 
ing the  surfaces,  as  they  cannot  be  cut.  See  SPECULUM- 
METAL;  ROSSE'S  TELESCOPE;  COPPER;  BRONZE. 

Till  Enamel. — A  pottery  enamel  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  tin  oxide.  The  Saracens  first  used  it  to  em- 
bellish their  pottery-ware,  but  the  Italians  were  finally 
successful  in  discovering  the  secret  of  its  production,  and 
used  the  enamel  on  their  famed  Majolica  ware  about  the 
year  1GOO.  See  ENAMEL. 

Tin-foil. — The  best  tin-foil  for  mirrors,  etc.,  is  made 
from  pure  tin  by  rolling  or  beafeing.  Commoner  kinds  are 
composed  of  tin,  zinc,  and  lead  in  varying  proportions, 
and  are  made  by  allowing  the  fluid  metal  to  flow  down  an 
inclined  plane  covered  with  canvas.  See  LEAD. 

Tiiiker's-dam. — A  wall,  generally  of  clay,  formed 
around  a  joint,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  retaining  the  solder 
in  close  contact  with  the  work  to  be  soldered. 

Tinman's  Solder.— See  SOLDER. 

Tinning. — Brass  and  copper  articles  boiled  in  a  solu- 
tion of  stannate  of  potassa,  mixed  with  turnings  of  tin, 
are  in  a  short  time  covered  with  a  layer  of  pure  tin.  If 
the  articles  be  boiled  in  caustic  alkali  or  cream  of  tartar 
with  tin-powder,  the  same  effect  is  produced;  the  latter 
mixture  is  composed  of  water  2  pails,  cream  of  tartar 


Tin-plate.  480  Tin-plate. 

£  lb.,  salt  J  pint.  Keep  the  article  moving  throughout 
the  process. 

Copper  tubes  may  be  tinned  inside  by  a  solution  of  salts 
of  tin  added  to  the  solution  of  Rochelle  salts,  which  forms 
a  precipitate  of  stannous  tartrate,  which  must  be  washed 
and  then  dissolved  in  caustic  lye.  Rinse  the  copper  tube 
with  sulphuric  acid,  and  afterwards  wash  it  well  out,  after 
which  the  tube  must  be  filled  with  the  alkaline  solution, 
slightly  warm,  and  a  tin  rod  inserted;  the  latter  will  at 
once  cause  a  thin  coat  of  metallic  tin  to  be  deposited. 

Iron  pots  and  similar  articles  are  first  cleaned  by  immer- 
sion in  sulphuric  acid  and  water  for  new  metal,  and  muri- 
atic acid  and  water  for  old  metal,  with  a  subsequent 
scouring  with  sand,  followed  by  washing  in  water.  They 
are  then  put  into  a  bath  prepared  with  cream  of  tartar 
1  ounce,  protochloride  of  tin  1  ounce,  water  10  quarts. 
This  bath  is  kept  in  a  wooden  or  stone-ware  vessel  at  a 
temperature  of  190°.  Small  pieces  of  zinc  are  distributed 
among  the  articles  in  the  bath,  which  may  be  taken  out 
and  washed  with  water  when  the  coat  of  tin  deposited 
thereon  is  thick  enough. 

If  iron  articles  are  first  cleaned  as  above,  they  may  be 
made  hot  enough  to  melt  tin,  and  then  rubbed  with  sal- 
ammoniac,  as  well  as  sprinking  the  latter  (in  powder) 
over  them;  the  tin  can  then  be  applied,  and  as  it  melts 
be  spread  evenly  all  over  with  a  hand-cloth. 

A  cold  process  of  tinning  is  to  blend  tin-foil  and  mer- 
cury into  a  soft,  fusible  amalgam,  and,  after  cleaning  as 
before  directed,  rub  on  the  amalgam  while  the  article  is 
moist,  and  then  apply  heat  to  evaporate  the  mercury.  See 

PLATE. 


Tin-plate.—  The  thin  iron  plates  for  this  purpose  are 
usually  made  from  the  best  charcoal-iron,  the  surface  of 
which  is  made  chemically  clean  by  pickling  in  hot  diluted 


Titanium.  481  Titanium. 

hydrochloric  acid.  They  are  then  washed  and  annealed 
in  closed  iron  boxes,  passed  two  or  three  times  through 
the  rolls  to  polish  the  surface  and  cause  them  to  take  less 
tin,  again  annealed  and  pickled,  and  subsequently  washed 
with  sand  and  running  water,  which  leaves  them  clean 
and  bright  for  tinning. 

The  plates  are  now  put  singly  into  a  pot  of  melted 
grease,  then  into  the  tin-pot,  containing  the  bath  of 
molten  tin,  covered  with  grease;  from  this  they  are  passed 
to  another  vessel  with  two  compartments,  called  the  wash- 
pot)  in  both  of  which  compartments  is  melted  tin  also, 
well  covered  with  grease,  like  the  first.  The  tin  in  this  pot 
is  purer  than  that  contained  in  the  tin-pot.  They  are  then 
lifted  out  of  compartment  No,  1,  wiped  with  a  long 
hempen  brush  on  both  sides,  and  again  dipped — in  compart- 
ment No.  2  this  time,  out  of  which  it  comes  shining,  to  be 
at  once  transferred  in  an  upright  position  to  a  pot  of  liquid 
grease,  the  temperature  of  which  is  maintained  no  higher 
than  will  keep  the  tin  in  contact  with  the  oil  in  a  liquid 
state,  allowing  the  superfluous  tin  to  run  off,  and  spreading 
the  remainder  equally  on  the  surface  of  the  iron.  See  TIN; 

TINNING. 

Tin-pot.— See  TIN-PLATE;  PANS. 
Tinstone.— See  TIN. 

Titanium  usually  occurs  as  a  gray,  heavy,  iron-like 
sand,  which  burns  brightly  in  the  air  and  is  converted  into 
titanic  acid,  or  in  prismatic  crystals.  In  many  of  its  reac- 
tions it  closely  resembles  tin.  Titanic  acid  is  used  for  im- 
parting a  yellow  tint  to  porcelain  glazes,  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  artificial  teeth.  Ores  containing  titanic  iron  are 
supposed  to  produce  an  excellent  quality  of  steel. 

ToMn-bronze.— See  DELTA-METAL. 


Tombac. 


482 


Tongue. 


Tombac  is,  a  cheap  gilding  metal  for  common 
jewelry,  and  purposes  where  it  is  desired  to  substitute  for 
the  nobler  metals  a  cheap  imitation. 

Those  given  in  the  following  table  are  made  by  first  fus- 
ing the  copper  and  adding  the  remainder  afterward  in  the 
usual  way — except  in  the  case  of  white  tombac:  in  this 
•alloy  the  two  metals  copper  and  arsenic  are  melted  together 
in  a  closed  crucible,  and  well  covered  with  common  salt  to 
prevent  oxidation. 


Kinds  of  Tombac. 

ti 

§ 

S 

£ 

H 

Arsenic. 

1 

M 

i 

Gold   imitation  

16 

1 

1 

Silver-white,  for  buttons,  etc.  .  . 
Red        ...                

75 

11 

1 

25 

Gilding,  for  common  jewelry.  .  . 
<  <          ««        «               « 

X                      «                   «                                    (( 

French  imitation  gold  

16 

16 
16 

82 
80 

1  to  1J 

3  to  4 
18 
17 

1 

3 

6 

3 

Yellow,  gilt  ornaments  

85  3 

14  7 

Ton. — A  weight,  equal  to  20  hundredweight  (civt.\ 
The  hundredweight  in  Britain  is  112  pounds,  making  the 
ton  2240  pounds.  The  U.  S.  hundredweight  is  reckoned 
at  100  pounds,  which  gives  a  ton  of  2000  pounds. 

Tongs. — A  metal  instrument  consisting  of  two  legs 
joined  together  at  one  end  by  a  pin,  on  which  they  work 
loose,  and  by  means  of  which  an  object  may  be  grasped. 
Used  in  the  smithy,  forge,  steel  and  brass  foundries,  etc. 
See  LIFTING-TONGS. 

Tongue. — An  attachment  on  a  loam-board  or  sweep, 
by  which  supplementary  bearings,  joints,  etc.,  are  formed. 
See  FINGER-PIECE. 


Topaz.  483  Touch. 

Tools.— See  MOULDING-TOOLS. 
Top-part.— See  FLASKS;  COPE. 
Top-plate. — See  COVERING-PLATE. 

Topaz. — This  precious  stone  is  found  in  Saxony, 
hernia,  Siberia,  and  Brazil,  mixed  with  other  minerals  in 
granite  rocks.  Its  colors  are  yellow,  bluish,  greenish, 
lilac,  and  white.  Electric  by  heat,  but  not  by  rubbing.  It 
is  composed  of  alumina  47.5,  silex  44.5,  fluoric  acid  7, 
oxide  of  iron  0.5.  This  is  for  the  yellow  variety;  their  com- 
positions vary.  It  occurs  crystallized  and  in  water-worn 
pebbles,  being  harder  than  quartz,  but  hardly  as  hard  as 
the  ruby.  The  yellow  variety,  when  without  flaws,  is  em- 
ployed for  jewelry.  See  SAPPHIRE;  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Torsion. — See  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Touch. — The  sense  of  touch  is  perhaps  more  acute  in 
the  hands  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  body,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  touch  will  reveal  inequalities  of  .surface 
which  the  unaided  eye  would  fail  to  detect.  This  sense 
when  fully  developed  is  of  infinite  service  when  a  mould 
surface  consisting  of  numerous  varying  curves  has  to  be 
formed  in  the  sand  so  that  all  the  lines  may  mingle 
one  into  another  in  such  a  manner  as  shall  defy  the 
strictest  scrutiny  to  detect  where  one  angle  intersects 
the  other.  This  nicety  of  touch  should  be  cultivated 
among  moulders  more  than  it  is:  eminent  sculptors  have 
it,  poor  ones  do  not;  and  it  is  rational  to  say  that  the 
moulder  who  is  deficient  in  this  quality  will  never  accom- 
plish anything  in  his  trade  but  what  is  mediocre. 

The  study  and  practice  of  modelling  in  sand  and  clay 
should  by  all  means  be  encouraged  in  our  technical  schools. 


Touch-needles.  484  Train. 

Both  touch  and  design  could  there  be  cultivated,  and 
opportunity  given  for  the  American  moulder  to  reach  that 
degree  of  artistic  superiority  which  has  been  already  at- 
tained by  the  educated  artisan  in  many  parts  of  Europe. 
See  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  FOB  THE  MOULDER. 

Touch-needles. — Used  by  assayers  and  refiners;  are 
little  bars  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  combined  together 
in  all  the  different  proportions  and  degrees  of  mixture. 
Their  use  is  to  discover  the  degree  of  purity  of  any  piece 
of  gold  or  silver  by  comparing  the  marks  they  leave  on 
the  touchstone  with  those  of  the  bars.  The  touchstone  is 
usually  a  piece  of  hard  black  basalt.  See  ASSAYING; 
BASALT. 

Toughened  Glass  is  made  by  plunging  the  glass 
into  a  bath  containing  an  oleaginous  mixture  after  heating 
almost  to  melting-point  the  articles  to  be  toughened,  the 
bath  itself  being  at  a  high  temperature,  but  not  so  high 
as  the  glass  itself.  Some  of  the  articles  are  thus  toughened 
without  any  previous  annealing — simply  dropping  them 
from  the  workman's  rod  directly  into  the  bath. 

Toughness. — This  quality  in  metals  is  simply  the 
power  to  resist  rupture — firmness,  strength,  compactness; 
not  readily  broken  or  fractured  by  bending,  drawing,  or 
extending.  A  metal  possessing  this  quality  is  flexible 
without  brittleness,  yielding  to  force  without  breaking. 
Toughness  is  tested  by  bending,  torsion,  etc.  See 
STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Train. — The  forge-train  consists  of  two  pairs  of  rolls 
connected  in  one  line,  those  on  the  left  being  the  rough- 
ing or  puddle  rolls;  the  right  are  ihe  finishing-rolls.  The 
mill-train  also  consists  of  two  pairs  of  rolls — roughing  or 
billeting  rolls,  and  finishing-rolls.  Forge-train  puddle- 


Trammel.  485  Treading. 

rolls  receive  the  puddle-blooms  from  the  squeezer;  the 
mill-train  billeting-rolls  are  for  rolling  merchant-iron  from 
the  puddled  bar  after  being  cut,  piled,  and  reheated. 

Trammel. — Compass-points  attached  to  sleeves  which 
slide  on  a  bar  or  beam.  They  are  used  for  describing 
larger  circles  than  an  ordinary  compass  will  reach.  They 
are  held  fast  at  any  point  on  the  bar  by  a  set- screw  on  the 
top. 

Tramping,  or  Treading,  is  a  method  of  ramming 
which,  when  thoroughly  understood,  is  of  great  value  to 
the  moulder,  owing  to  the  fact  that  upon  an  equal  thick- 
ness of  sand  a  man's  weight  applied  at  every  portion  must 
result  in  an  equal  depression  all  over,  and  thus  produce  a 
rammed  surface  of  equal  density  at  every  part.  Tramping 
is  much  practised  by  light-work  moulders,  who  roll  all 
their  work  over  in  frame  nowels  with  follow  and  bottom 
boards,  as  well  as  by  those  employed  on  heavy  work,  when 
mould-beds  are  formed  in  the  floor.  If  this  operation  is 
not  performed  with  judgment  and  care,  the  casting  will 
most  assuredly  betray  the  moulder's  ignorance  or  neglect; 
alternate  heavy  and  light  treading  being  unmistakably 
revealed  by  the  undulating  appearance  of  the  casting's  sur- 
face. A  swelled  casting  is  an  abomination,  but  it  may 
always  be  avoided  by  intelligent  ramming  and  tramping. 
See  HAMMING;  VENTING. 

Tramway,  Overhead. — See  CRANES;  IRON  CAR- 
RIER. 

Transverse  Strength, — See  STRENGTH  OP  MA- 
TERIALS. 

Travelling-crane. — See  CRANE. 
Treading. — Same  as  Tramping.    See  TRAMPING. 


Trestle.  48G  Triphammer. 

Trestle. — A  beam  connected  to  three  or  four  legs 
which  spread  out  at  the  bottom  to  impart  greater  stability. 
Trestles  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  for  supporting 
moulds,  flasks,  etc.,  and  are  commonly  termed  horses  when 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  forms  of  trestles,  in  both 
wood  and  iron,  vary  according  to  the  use  for  which  they 
are  intended.  See  COKE-LATHE. 

Trial-cast.— A  simple  and  inexpensive  method  of 
obtaining  a  trial-cast  of  pig  iron  is  to  possess  a  gas-blast  or 
other  good  crucible  furnace  in  which  to  melt  a  small  sample 
at  quick  notice,  and  cast  a  bar  one  inch  square,  twelve 
inches  long,  and  another  two  inches  wide,  one-eighth  inch 
thick,  also  twelve  inches  long.  These  must  be  moulded 
carefully,  by  the  same  person  every  time  if  possible,  in  sepa- 
rate flasks,  and  poured  with  metal  corresponding  in  temper- 
ature on  each  occasion.  If  a  wedge-like  projection  two 
inches  long  be  cast  on  one  or  both  ends  of  the  square  bar, 
the  tendency  to  chill  will  be  at  once  determined  by  the 
amount  of  white  iron  extending  from  the  point  inwards,  as 
well  as  by  the  edges  of  the  thin  bar.  The  amount  of 
shrinkage  is  ascertained  by  careful  measurement  of  the 
bars;  and,  if  the  same  gates  be  used  for  each  cast,  the  thin 
bar  will  serve  to  show  the  metaFs  fluidity.  Tensile  or 
transverse  strength  can  be  afterwards  obtained  on  the  test- 
ing-machine. See  TESTING-MACHINE;  STEEL  CASTINGS; 
GAS-BLAST  FURNACE. 

Trinket-metal. — See  GOLD  ALLOYS;  TOMBAC. 

Trip-hammer,  or  Frontal  Helve,  differs  from  the 
Tilt-hammer  in  that  the  lever,  instead  of  being  raised  by 
depressing  the  tail,  is  lifted  by  projections  or  wipers  which 
act  by  lifting  the  head  about  twenty  inches.  The  trip  is 
especially  for  shingling,  and  is  made  more  massive  than  the 
tilt.  See  TILT-HAMMER. 


Tripod.  487  Trowel. 

Tripod.— See  SPIDER;  ORDNANCE. 

Tripoli  was  originally  brought  from  that  part  of 
Africa  from  whence  it  derives  its  name.  It  is  a  siliceous 
stone  with  fine  particles,  much  like  rottenstone  in  its 
nature,  and  like  it  is  used  extensively  in  polishing  metals, 
glass,  and  marble.  See  POLISHING  SUBSTANCES. 

Trituration. — Dry  grinding  by  special  apparatus 
designed  to  make  a  finer  powder  than  is  possible  by  the 
ordinary  means  for  pulverizing.  When  the  comminution 
is  aided  by  a  liquid  it  is  termed  levigation. 

Trolley. — A  term  of  general  application  to  all  vehicles 
which  run  on  a  track  or  tracks,  but  more  especially  to  the 
carriage  of  an  overhead  tramway.  See  IRON-CARRIER; 
CRANES. 

Trompe. — A  water-blowing  machine,  consisting  of  a 
cistern  supported  about  twenty  feet  above  the  air-chamber 
and  connected  with  the  latter  by  a  wooden  pipe,  near  the 
top  of  which  are  several  oblique  holes.  Another  pipe 
connection  on  the  lower  cistern  or  wind-chamber  leads  to 
the  tuyere.  When  working,  the  upper  cistern  is  kept  full 
of  water,  and  the  flow  therefrom  is  regulated  by  a  conical 
plug.  As  soon  as  opened,  the  water  rushes  down  the  long 
pipe,  carrying  some  air,  which  enters  through  the  holes 
along  with  it;  the  water  falls  on  a  projection  inside  the 
wind-chamber,  and  its  height  in  the  latter  is  regulated  by 
an  escape-pipe  on  the  side;  while  the  air  carried  down  with 
the  water  is  forced  to  the  furnace  through  the  discharge 
previously  spoken  of.  See  CATALAN  FORGE. 

Trowel. — This  is  unquestionably  the  most  important 
of  all  the  moulder's  tools.  The  square  trowels  vary  in  size 


Troy  Weight.  488  Tub. 

from  J  inch  X  3  inches  to  2  inches  X  7  inches,  and  are 
supplied  with  a  handle  similar  in  style  to  the  ordinary 
mason's  trowel,  but  smaller.  Others,  again,  having  handles, 
are  heart-shaped,  and  vary  in  size  from  1J  inches  to  3|- 
inches  across.  There  is,  besides  these,  a  combination  tool 
having  a  square  at  one  end  and  a  heart  at  the  other,  which 
for  general  purposes,  in  skilful  hands,  is  the  most  useful 
of  all.  See  MOULDING- TOOLS. 

Troy  Weight. — A  weight  used  chiefly  in  weighing 
the  precious  metals,  gems,  jewelry,  etc.  A  standard 
pound  Troy  contains  twelve  ounces,  each  ounce  twenty 
pennyweights,  and  each  pennyweight  twenty-four  grains. 

Truck. — Almost  any  contrivance  on  wheels  for  carry- 
ing loads  is  called  a  truck.  At  one  time  trucks  were  of 
such  variety  as  almost  to  defy  description,  but  the  tram- 
rail  and  overhead  conveniences  have  revolutionized  this, 
leaving  the  foundries  clear  of  all  except  the  common  hand- 
truck  and  wheelbarrow.  See  IRON-CARRIER;  CRANES. 

Trunnions  are  cylindrical  projections  placed  on 
each  side  of  a  flask  in  a  position  to  balance  it.  The 
trunnion  forms  an  axis  to  turn  in  a  sling,  or  on  a  suitably 
contrived  trestle,  when  the  cope  is  turned  over.  A  de- 
pression in  the  middle  of  the  trunnion  prevents  the  sling 
from  slipping  off.  See  SLING. 

Tub.— The  rectangular  wooden  trough  over  which 
some  brass-moulders  ram  their  flasks  is  by  them  called  a 
tub.  If  iron  slides  are  fastened  on  the  inside,  lengthwise, 
a  few  inches  from  the  top,  a  frame  can  rest  thereon  to  hold 
the  flasks.  By  this  means  the  rammed  flask  may  be  slided 
across  or  along  the  tub  into  any  convenient  position  with- 
out bearing  up  its  weight — a  great  convenience  when  the 
work  is  prolonged. 


Tube-vents.  480  Tumbling-barrel. 

Tube-vents  are  vent-connections  made  with  tubes  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  any  metal  to 
insinuate  itself  therein.  If  the  gas  from  one  core  must  be 
made  to  pass  off  by  the  way  of  another  through  a  connect- 
ing core,  the  operation  is  made  absolutely  safe  by  placing  a 
tube  midway  at  the  junction  ;  or  if  a  vent  must  be  led 
from  a  core  remote  from  the  outside,  as  in  a  set  of  steam- 
way  cores,  tubes  inserted  in  the  vents,  long  enough  to  reach 
the  distance,  make  it  a  safe  operation.  See  VENTING. 

Tucking. — A  process  in  moulding  intended  to  make 
all  parts  of  a  mould  sufficiently  hard  by  a  previous  ram- 
ming or  tucking  with  the  fingers  in  places  where  under 
existing  circumstances  the  rammer  could  not  be  made 
to  reach,  as  under  flask-bars,  among  gaggers,  etc.  The 
method  is  in  many  instances  a  reprehensible  one,  as 
the  more  effective  and  safer  mode  would  be  to  do  this 
tucking  with  a  small  hand-rammer,  the  latter  being  much 
easier  on  the  fingers  also.  See  RAMMING;  VENTING. 

Tula-metal.— See  NIELLO-ENGBAVING. 

Tumbling-barrel. — The  common  tumbling  or 
cleaning  barrel  consists  of  a  barrel-shaped,  vessel  with  a 
side  opening  for  introducing  the  work,  mounted  on  an 
axis,  and  revolved  by  gears  or  belt. 

These,  however,  are  fast  becoming  scarce,  owing  to  the 
numerous  patented  inventions  of  various  descriptions 
which  may  be  obtained  from  the  dealers  at  short  notice. 

The  Henderson  oblique  barrel,  used  for  burnishing  and 
plating  small  brass  goods  as  well  as  iron;  also  an  exhaust- 
barrel  for  castings;  the  Stover  exhaust  for  castings,  nails, 
forgings,  etc. ;  friction-geared,  roller-geared,  and  encased 
tumbling-barrels — are  only  a  few  of  the  machines  designed 
to  totally  eradicate  the  dust  and  noise  which  have  hitherto 


Tungsten.  490  Turpentine. 

been  the  inevitable  accompaniment  of  these  useful  devices. 
See  EXHAUST  TUMBLING-BARREL. 

Tungsten,  or  Wolframite,  forms  with  steel  an  alloy 
of  remarkable  hardness.  It  is  a  rare  metal,  derived  chiefly 
from  wolfram,  a  tungstate  of  iron  and  manganese.  See 
WOLFRAM. 

Tungsten-bronze  is  made  by  adding  tungsten  to 
the  ordinary  bronzes  or  brass  containing  copper,  tin,  zinc, 
and  lead. 

Tungsten-steel. — Wolframite  aaded  to  steel. 
Turf.— See  PEAT. 

Turkey-stone. — A  slaty  stone  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  fine  siliceous  particles,  which  make  it  of  great 
service  for  sharpening  edge-tools.  See  WHETSTONE. 

Turnbuckle. — A  long  link  having  tapped  ends  or 
one  end  swivelled;  used  for  tightening  stay-rods  or  chains, 
as  in  a  swivel  chain.  See  SWIVEL-CHAIN;  SWIVEL. 

Turning-cores.— See  CORE-LATHE. 

Turnover  Board. — See  FOLLOW-BOARD;  MATCH- 
PLATE;  MATCH-PART;  BED-BOARD. 

Turnover  Flask  is  the  flask  used  with  a  turnover 
board.  See  ROLLING-OVER;  TURNOVER  BOARD;  FLASKS. 

Turpentine. — Oil  of  turpentine  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling with  water  the  pitchy  matter  that  exudes  from 
pine-trees;  what  remains  after  distillation  is  called  common 


Tutania.  491  Tymp. 

rosin.    Boils  at  320°;  is  highly  inflammable ;  specific  gravity 
0.86.     See  PITCH;  RESIN. 

Tutania. — A  beautiful  table-ware  alloy  of  silvery 
brightness.  One  mixture  is  tin  2  pounds,  antimony  4 
ounces,  arsenic  1  ounce.  The  Bngestroom  tutania  is  cop- 
per 4,  regulus  of  antimony  8,  bismuth  1,  melted  together 
and  added  to  100  parts  of  tin.  A  German  alloy  is  tin  48, 
copper  1,  antimony  4.  See  SPANISH  TUTANIA;  SILVER; 
GERMAN-SILVER  ;  BRITANNIA  METAL. 

Tutenag". — An  Indian  name  for  zinc.  It  is  sometimes 
applied  to  denote  a  white  alloy  brought  from  China  and 
called  Chinese  copper.  Analysis  discovers  copper,  zinc, 
and  iron  in  some  specimens,  while  others  are  said  to  be 
merely  copper  and  arsenic.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  table- 
ware, and  is  generally  composed  of  copper  50,  nickel  19, 
and  zinc  31,  although  it  is  common  to  mix  lead  or  iron  in 
small  quantities  along  with  these  ingredients.  See  WHITE 
ALLOYS. 

Tutty.— A  polishing  powder  consisting  of  an  impure 
oxide  of  zinc,  gathered  from  the  chimneys,  etc.,  of  the 
zinc  furnaces.  See  POLISHING  SUBSTANCES. 

Tuyere. — A  tube  to  direct  and  regulate  a  current  of 
air  to  the  inside  of  a  cupola  or  other  blast-furnace.  For 
description,  see  CUPOLA;  for  number  required  in  different- 
sized  cupolas,  see  CHARGING  THE  COMMON  CUPOLA.  See 
also  BLAST-PIPES;  BLAST-GATE;  EYEPIECE;  BLAST-PRESS- 
URE; GREINER  PATENT  CUPOLA. 

Twister. — See  HAY-ROPE  TWISTER. 

Tymp. — An  opening  in  the  masonry  of  a  blast-fur- 
nace hearth,  across  the  top  of  which  is  laid  either  a  block 


Type-founding.  492  Type  founding. 

of  refractory  stone,  or  a  hollow  iron  block,  through  which  a 
current  of  water  is  kept  constantly  flowing  to  prevent  it 
from  melting.  The  dam-plate  stands  a  little  below  and 
supports  the  dam-stone,  which  forms  the  front  of  the  fore- 
hearth.  The  slag  flows  over  the  tymp,  while  the  reduced 
iron  collects  in  the  hearth  below.  See  CAST  IRON". 

Type-founding1.— Typography  means  writing  by 
types.  Movable  types  were  used  for  printing  in  China  and 
Japan  long  before  the  art  was  practised  in  Europe;  blocks 
were  used  there  as  far  back  as  the  sixth  century,  but  it  was 
not  till  the  tenth  century  that  books  were  produced.  The 
Chinese  employed  movable  types  of  clay  about  the  eleventh 
century,  and  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  Coreans  invented 
types  of  copper.  The  book  trade  was  established  in 
Europe  about  the  thirteenth  century,  and  it  was  about  the 
year  1457  that  Faust  and  Schoeffer  printed  with  movable 
wooden  types.  Some  think  that  the  earliest  types  were 
cast  in  sand,  and  followed  later  by  plaster  moulds;  but 
whatever  process  of  casting  was  then  employed,  their  form 
corresponds  with  those  now  in  use — lead,  iron,  copper, 
tin,  steel,  and  brass  being  all  employed  in  their  production 
at  that  time. 

The  earliest  printers  cast  their  own  types,  but  the  mod- 
ern type-founder  has  usurped  that  part  of  the  business. 
To  make  a  type  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  letter  is  first 
cut  on  the  end  of  a  soft  steel  punch  and  then  hardened, 
after  which  the  impression  is  obtained  on  a  piece  of 
polished  copper.  This  impression  is  the  matrix,  on  which 
the  face  of  the  type  is  cast  after  it  has  been  enclosed  within 
a  metal  mould.  The  metal  is  poured  into  the  mould  by 
the  workman,  who  gives  it  a  quick  jerk,  after  it  has  been 
filled,  to  solidify  it. 

The  above  is  the  hand-mould  method  practised  until 
about  1838,  when  a  type-casting  machine  was  invented  by 


Type  metal.  493  Type-metal. 

David  Bruce  of  New  York,  followed  by  many  others  of  a 
similar  description,  most  of  which  kept  the  metal  fluid  by 
gas-jets,  and  forced  it  into  the  moulds  with  a  pump,  mak- 
ing an  average  of  100  types  per  minute.  Johnson's  Eng- 
lish patent  consists  of  a  furnace  covered  by  a  shallow  pot 
of  fused  metal,  in  which  the  pump  and  mould  are  placed, 
opposite  its  nozzle.  After  adjustment  the  metal  is  injected 
and  solidifies,  forming  a  type,  with  jet  or  gate  attached. 
This  letter  is  thrust  out,  and  the  mould  closes  for  another 
cast,  all  of  which  takes  place  at  one  revolution  of  the  axis. 
As  they  are  thus  cast  and  delivered,  the  letters  are  guided 
to  the  dressing-machine,  and  by  a  subsequent  series  of 
automatically  performed  operations  they  are  finally  deliv- 
ered ready  for  the  printer.  See  TYPE-METAL;  STEREO- 
TYPE. 

Type-metal. — Lead  is  the  principal  ingredient  cT 
type-metal,  with  varying  proportions  of  antimony,  ranging 
from  17  to  20  per  cent  of  the  latter,  with  small  proportions 
of  other  metals  to  harden  it,  as  tin,  bismuth,  nickel,  and 
copper.  Ductility,  hardness,  and  toughness  being  the 
prime  requisites  of  a  type-metal,  these  alloys  must  vary 
according  to  the  quality  and  nature  of  the  work  for  which 
they  are  intended. 

A  less  proportion  of  antimony  is  used  for  large  than  for 
small  type.  Small  type  must  be  harder,  to  resist  the  wear 
and  make  it  rigid. 

In  1855  Besley's  patent  type-metal  came  into  use,  con- 
sisting of  lead  100,  antimony  30,  tin  20,  copper  8,  bismuth 
2,  nickel  8. 

The  common  type-metal  compound  for  mixtures  consists 
of  lead  80,  antimony  20,  with  from  5  to  6  of  bismuth. 

Lead  3,  antimony  1  makes  the  hard  alloy  for  the  small- 
est type;  if  required  softer,  add  one  part  more  to  the  lead. 

Medium-sized  types  require  lead  5,  antimony  1.     Large 


Uchatius  Steel.  494  Undercut. 

types,  lend  6,  antimony  1;  or  lead  7,  antimony  1  for  a  softer 
grade. 

Stereotype  plates,  4  to  8  of  lead  to  1  of  antimony,  accord- 
ing to  hardness  required. 

About  five  per  cent  of  tin  may  be  used  on  the  small 
type,  or  a  small  proportion  of  copper. 

The  antimony  is  very  serviceable  in  type-founding  : 
being  a  metal  that  expands  in  cooling,  it  counteracts  the 
high  shrinkage  of  the  lead,  and  thus  preserves  the  original 
size  of  the  cast — a  very  important  feature  in  stereotype- 
casting.  SEE  TYPE-FOUNDING. 

U. 

Uchatius  Bronze. — See  TELEGRAPH-WIRE. 

Uchatius  Steel. — This  steel  is  produced  from  iron 
which  has  been  granulated  by  plunging  into  water  and 
then  melted  along  with  brown  hematite  ores,  etc. 

Umber. — A  variety  of  hematite  ore,  composed  of  oxide 
of  iron  48,  oxide  of  manganese  20,  silex  13,  alumina  5, 
water  14.  It  is  found  in  Cyprus;  occurs  massive;  has  no 
lustre;  is  brown  and  yellow  in  color;  becomes  a  reddish 
brown  when  burnt,  and  in  that  state  is  used  as  an  artist's 
color. 

Undercut. — A  pattern  or  model  is  said  to  be  under- 
cut when  its  lower  dimensions  are  largest — exactly  opposite 
to  taper  or  draught.  Such  patterns  may  in  some  cases  be 
rammed  within  a  flask  and  withdrawn  after  reversing  the 
whole,  or  the  projecting  parts  may  be  made  loose  on  the 
main  block  and  drawn  inward  after  the  latter  has  been 
taken  out.  Another  method  is  to  proceed  contrary  to  the 
usual  custom  and  draw  the  mould  from  the  pattern  in  as 


Universal  Rolling-mill.  495  Vapor. 

many  sections  or  draivbacks  as  will  allow  the  pattern  to  be 
lifted  away  from  the  remainder.  See  STATUE-FOUNDING; 
TAPER;  DRAWBACK;  FALSE  COKE. 

Universal  Rolling-mill. — A  compound  rolling- 
mill  consists  of  a  pair  of  vertical  rolls  working  in  com- 
bination with  another  pair  of  horizontal  ones,  which  act  to 
compress  the  pile  edgeways  and  flatways  at  once. 

Unsoundness  of  Steel.— See  SILICON;  HONEY- 
COMBING; STEEL  CASTINGS;  PRESSING  FLUID  STEEL. 

Upright  Runner.— See  GATE-PIN. 

Uranium. — A  metal  found  in  a  few  minerals,  as  pitch- 
blende, which  is  an  oxide,  and  uranite,  which  is  a  phosphate. 
The  former  is  its  principal  ore.  The  metal,  according  to 
the  process  by  which  it  is  obtained,  is  either  in  fused  white 
malleable  globules  or  in  a  black  powder.  It  is  used  for 
imparting  a  yellow  tint  to  glass.  See  METALS. 


V. 

Vacuum  denotes  a  space  empty  or  devoid  of  all  mat- 
ter. When  air  is  removed  from  a  vessel  with  an  air-pump 
a  vacuum  is  said  to  be  produced.  Sometimes  a  vacuum 
occurs  from  natural  causes,  but  it  is  only  for  an  instant,  as 
the  surrounding  air  rushes  in  to  fill  them.  The  most  per- 
fect vacuum  until  recently  was  the  space  above  the  mercury 
in  a  barometric  tube.  See  TEMPERATURE. 

Vapor. — Heat  converts  liquids  into  vapors,  and  the 
process  is  called  vaporization.  Heat  applied  to  a  solid  first 
expands  it,  then  melts  it,  and  finally  turns  it  into  vapor. 
When  vapor  is  formed  sensible  heat  is  absorbed  and  cold  is 


Varnishes.  496  Venti-ng. 

produced.  Hence  when  the  skin  is  moistened  with  a  volatile 
liquid  (one  that  pusses  readily  into  vapor),  like  alcohol,  a 
sensation  of  cold  is  produced;  the  heat  has  been  consumed. 

Varnishes. — The  solutions  of  the  various  resins  in 
alcohol,  the  drying-oils,  or  the  essential  oils.  Transparent 
varnish  for  patterns :  Alcohol  1  gallon,  best  shellac  2J 
pounds;  to  be  kept  warm,  not  hot  nor  cold.  Common 
oil-varnish :  Resin  4  pounds,  beeswax  -J  pound,  boiled  oil 

1  gallon;  mix  when  warm;  then  add  spirits  of  turpentine 

2  quarts.     Mastic  varnish  :  Mastic  1  pound,  white  wax  1 
ounce,  spirits  of  turpentine  1  gallon;   reduce  the  gums 
small,  then  digest  with  heat  in  a  closed  vessel  till  dissolved. 
Turpentine-varnish:   Eesin  1  pound,  boiled  oil  1  pound; 
melt;  then  add  turpentine  2  Ibs.;  mix  well.     Gold-varnish: 
Digest  shellac  16,  sandarac,  mastic,  of  each  3,  crocus  1, 
gamboge  2,  all  bruised,  with  alcohol  144.      Chinese  quick- 
drying:   Sandarac   2   ounces,  mastic  2  ounces,  alcohol  1 
pint.     Copal  varnish:   Pale  hard   copal  2   pounds;   fuse; 
boil  with   one   pint  drying-oil  and  thin  with  turpentine. 
See  BLACK  VARNISH;  etc. 

Vegetable  Casts  in  Metal.— See  INSECT  CASTS  IN 
METAL. 

Vegetable  Wax. — This  wax  is  found  as  exudations 
on  leaves  and  fruits,  where  they  form  a  glaucous  surface, 
which  repels  water.  The  bayberry,  for  instance,  is  thickly 
coated  with  it. 

Veins.— See  ORES. 

Venting. — The  word  "venting,"  as  understood  in 
foundry  nomenclature,  is  a  significant  one,  and  means  any 
or  all  of  the  various  schemes  which  arc  being  daily  in- 


Venting.  497  Venting. 

vented  and  practised  to  safely  dispose  of  the  gases  pro- 
duced in  the  moulds  and  cores,  when  brought  in  contact 
with  the  molten  metal.  It  is  unquestionably  the  most 
important  phase  of  the  moulder's  art,  and  would  likewise  be 
the  most  interesting  if  the  workmen  fully  understood  all 
its  niceties  from  the  standpoint  of  the  chemist.  So  far 
this  advantage  has  been  denied  the  average  moulder,  and 
there  is  every  indication  that  he  must  for  some  time  longer 
keep  moulding  castings  the  manipulation  of  which  involves 
processes  which  are  common  only  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
chemist.  How  he  acquits  himself  of  the  task  is  an  unsolved 
problem  to  every  one  at  all  conversant  with  the  work. 

All  moulds  and  cores  contain  various  proportions  of  or- 
ganic and  volatile  matters,  consisting  of  portions  of  roots, 
horse-dung,  coal,  straw,  etc.,  all  of  which  when  decom- 
posed by  the  hot  metal  generate  inflammable  gases;  in  ad- 
dition to  which  must  be  added  steam  from  the  moist  sand, 
which  when  decomposed  gives  rise  to  hydrogen,  while  its 
oxygen  combines  with  whatever  carbon  may  be  present  in 
the  material  to  form  carbonic  oxides.  These  inflammable 
gases  when  mixed  with  atmospheric  air  produce  a  danger- 
ously explosive  compound,  and  it  is  in  dealing  with  this 
objectionable  substance  that  the  moulder's  judgment  and 
skill  are  frequently  taxed  to  the  utmost  in  order  to  avoid 
the  terrific  explosions  which  would  be  sure  to  follow,  in 
rome  instances,  if  it  should  be  ignited  prematurely. 

The  methods  employed  for  venting  are  various — from  the 
simple  operation  of  making  a  small  hole  through  the  centre 
of  an  inch  core,  or  perforating  the  sand  in  the  top  and 
bottom  parts  of  a  bench-flask,  to  the  more  complicated 
systems  necessary  for  the  successful  production  of  high- 
grade  castings.  Nevertheless  they  all  aim  at  the  one  ob- 
ject, viz.,  to  convey  the  gas  safely  away  as  soon  as  it  gener- 
ates in  the  sand,  and  thus  prevent  it  from  forcing  its  way 
into  the  interior  of  the  mould  by  breaking  down  such 


Venting. 


498 


Venting. 


portions  as  are  not  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the 
pressure.  It  is  largely  due  to  imperfect  venting  when 
the  mould  surface  is  destroyed  in  this  manner,  and  what 
are  technically  called  "scabs,"  "blisters,"  "blowheads," 
etc.,  may  also  be  traced  to  this  source,  which  in  extreme 
cases  may  result  in  total  disruption  of  the  mould  by  ex- 
plosion. 

Very  much  of  the  venting  practised  on  ordinary  green- 
sand  work  might,  however,  be  dispensed  with  if  those  in- 
terested in  the  business  were  better  informed  with  regard 
to  the  sand  employed  for  moulding  purposes.  The  worth 
of  sands  for  foundry  use  are  almost  entirely  dependent  on 
their  possessing  certain  chemical  and  physical  properties; 
by  the  chemist's  aid  it  is  reasonable  to  anticipate  a  time 
in  the  near  future  when  many  of  the  evils  we  now  attempt 
to  obviate  by  increased  venting  will  be  more  effectually 
remedied  by  a  change  in  the  materials  employed. 

While  we  admit  that  careful  venting  is  a  prime  requisite 
in  some  cases,  it  is  a  fact  beyond  question  that  very  much 
valuable  time  is  wasted  in  venting  some  moulds  which,  if 
intelligently  rammed  with  suitable  material,  would  be 


Face  of  Bed 


Fig.l 

equally  good,  or  perhaps  better,  without  a  vent.  Some 
moulders  mix  sea-coal  with  sand,  believing  that  it  imparts 
a  quality  thereto  which  makes  venting  unnecessary;  whereas 
the  sea-coal  only  serves  to  separate  the  clayey  portions  of 


Venting.  499  Venting. 

sand,  and  introduces  particles  of  refractory  carbon,  which 
prevent  in  some  measure  the  partial  fusing  of  the  sand — 
to  be  noticed  on  castings  that  have  been  made  in  new  sand. 
The  coal  burns  and  emits  its  smoke,  forming  a  film  of  gas 
betwixt  the  sand  and  the  metal ;  but  this  gas,  like  the  rest, 
must  be  conveyed  away  as  fast  as  it  generates,  otherwise  it 
will  seek  an  entrance  to  the  mould,  with  the  result  above 
described. 

To  ascertain  the  effect  of  coal  upon  sand,  and  obtain  a 
true  estimate  of  the  materials  employed  for  making  mould 
surfaces,  prepare  two  open  sand-plates  on  the  floor,  about 
3  feet  square  and  J  inch  thick,  one  bed  to  be  made  with 
ordinary  coal  facing-sand,  the  other  in  floor-sand  free  from 
coal;  both  to  be  equal  in  density  and  moisture,  but  neither 
one  vented.  The  free-sand  mould  will  permit  the  metal 
to  spread  uninterruptedly  over  its  surface,  because  there  is 
comparatively  no  gas-producing  substances  in  the  sand  used 
for  forming  it.  How  different  in  the  other  case  !  The 
instant  you  begin  to  pour,  gas  is  generated  from  the  coal- 
sand  surface,  which  cannot  make  its  escape  outwards  be- 
cause there  are  no  vents  provided :  it  must  therefore  force 
its  way  inwards;  the  result  being  that  the  whole  surface  of 
molten  metal  is  converted  into  a  mass  of  eruptive  jets, 
which  continue  to  bubble  forth  the  imprisoned  gases  as 
long  as  the  metal  remains  fluid.  The  solidified  plate  will 
show  a  honeycombed  surface  all  over,  and  be  worthless  as  a 
casting.  If  such  a  plate  be  prepared  2  inches  thick  instead 
of  J  inch,  the  metal  will  remain  in  a  fluid  condition  for  a 
longer  space  of  time,  and  the  quantity  of  gas  generated  will 
be  augmented  correspondingly;  this  naturally  adds  force 
to  the  gas,  which  in  its  effort  to  escape  will  carry  along 
with  it  the  sand  crust,  throwing  it  upwards  through  the 
metal  with  considerable  force  until  the  violent  action  is 
arrested  by  solidification  of  the  mass. 

The  water  contained  in  green-sand  mould  surfaces  is  at 


Venting. 


500 


Venting. 


once  converted  to  steam  when  the  molten  metal  covers 
them;  if  this  steam  is  not  adequately  drained  off  by  vent- 
ing, the  result  will  be  similar  to  that  described  for  coal. 
Ordinarily  this  steam  is  pressed  backwards  into  the  porous 
mass  of  sand  behind,  but  when  this  sand  must  necessarily 
be  rammed  so  hard  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  steam 
to  circulate  through  it,  then  recourse  must  be  had  to  vent- 
ing. Masses  of  green-sand  almost  entirely  surrounded 
with  metal  require  the  most  accurate  venting,  as  there  is  no 
possibility  of  the  steam  and  gas  circulating;  it  must  pass 
through  a  limited  space,  and  special  means  are  provided 
for  guiding  it  Out  at  that  aperture,  wherever  it  may  be 
located. 

All  green-sand  surfaces — which  for  obvious  reasons  must 
be  made  very  hard — require  special  treatment;  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  bottom  of  bed -plates,  lathe  and  planer  beds, 
and  all  similar  moulds.  For  work  of  this  class  the  ordi- 
nary wire  venting  must  be  supplemented  by  the  use  of  a 


\  \^  Vent  Pipe  (/ 

.. 

PI^M^^^^^^^^^^^^^I 

p%|        Core       v%         Core      j%fl 

aas8(tge*  to 

Binder  Hed 

Old  Sand 

Cinder  Bed 

Old  Sand 

Fig.  2 

cinder-bed,  which  acts  as  a  general  receiver  of  all  the  gases 
generated  on  the  outside  walls  and  bottom  surfaces  oi'  the 
mould,  and  for  the  inside  too  in  some  instances.  This 
consists  of  digging  down  from  12  to  16  inches  below  the 
bottom  surface  of  the  pattern  and  placing  a  layer  of  coarse 


Venting.  501  Venting. 

cinders  down  on  the  bottom  from  6  to  8  inches  deep,  the 
interstices  to  be  filled  with  finer  ones.  Over  this  a  thin 
layer  of  hay  or  straw  serves  to  prevent  the  sand  from  en- 
tering. Pipes  must  be  set  at  convenient  places,  to  which 
the  cinder-bed  is  connected,  and  through  which  the  col- 
lected gases  will  escape  to  the  surface.  Over  this  a  layer 
of  old  sand  is  firmly  rammed  to  within  one  inch  of  the  in- 
tended surface,  when  the  whole  is  vented  with  a  f-inch 
wire  down  through  the  sand  to  the  cinders;  after  which 
the  facing-sand  is  spread  over  in  sufficient  quantity  to  ad- 
mit of  treading  or  ramming  down  enough  to  leave  the  sur- 
face somewhat  above  the  straight-edges  by  which  the  bed 
is  formed.  Before  striking  off  the  superfluous  sand,  it  is 
requisite  in  some  particular  cases  to  supplement  the  pre- 
vious venting  with  the  large  wire  to  the  cinders  by  another 
course  of  very  fine  vents,  giving  them  a  little  slant  in  order 
to  make  sure  of  striking  the  large  vents.  The  large  vents 
may  be  2  inches  apart,  but  the  smaller  ones  should  be 
much  closer.  By  using  an  extremely  fine  wire  in  the  latter 
venting,  there  will  be  no  open  vents  by  the  time  the  bed 
has  been  strickled  off  and  made  smooth.  Fig.  1  illustrates 
the  processes  herein  explained. 

Cinder-beds  offer  many  inducements  for  their  more 
general  adoption,  as  by  this  means  all  venting  required  on 
the  sides  and  elsewhere  may  be  effectually  done  by  either 
pushing  a  wire  down  to  the  cinders  or  ramming  up  rods 
from  thence.  This  enables  the  moulder  to  make  his  mould 
free  of  vent-holes  at  the  joint — "a  consummation  most  de- 
voutly to  be  wished/7  as  every  intelligent  moulder  knows. 
While  it  is  freely  admitted  that  gas  will  rise  easier  than  it 
will  descend,  there  is  no  question  about  the  efficiency  of 
down  venting  when  the  passage  ways  are  kept  clear. 

All  large  areas,  especially  such  as  must  receive  cores, 
etc.,  over  which  the  metal  will  rest,  can  be  easily  and  most 
effectually  vented  by  means  of  the  cinder-bed  when  any 


Venting. 


502 


Venting. 


of  the  other  methods  usually  employed  might  render  the 
operation  more  than  doubtful.     See  Fig.  2. 

Deep  green-sand  work,  such  as  tanks,  cisterns,  etc., 
round  or  square,  offer  very  few  difficulties  when  the 
cinder-bed  is  employed  as  a  basis  for  venting.  If  such 
castings  be  plain,  and  are  moulded  bottom  up,  the  open 


Cinder  Bed 
Old  Sand 


Fig.  3 

bed  below  will  readily  receive  the  vents  from  the  wire 
direct ;  but  should  there  be  branches  or  other  attachments, 
which  make  it  necessary  to  lift  out  the  core,  an  intermedi- 
ate layer  of  cinders  inside  the  core  will  intercept  the  vent, 
and  *a  convenient  hole  in  the  lifting- plate  serves  to  convey 
the  gas  downward  to  the  original  bed.  See  Figs.  3  and  4. 
There  are,  however,  a  large  number  of  moulds  that  can 
be  very  readily  vented  by  the  wire  alone.  Thin  flat  work  is 
particularly  adapted  for  direct  wire-venting.  A  shallow 
channel  cut  in  the  joint  some  distance  from  the  pattern 
serves  as  a  starting-point  for  the  wire,  which  when  bent  a 
little  may  be  thrust  in  under  the  pattern  (see  Fig.  5) ;  or, 
should  the  pattern  be  more  complicated,  as  a  beam  or 
lintel,  the  sand  below  the  casting  may  be  perforated  by 
means  of  a  bent  wire  thrust  in  from  the  outside,  after  the 


Venting. 


503 


Venting. 


ramming  has  reached  some  distance  from  the  bottom,  and 
these  again  pierced  by  vertical  vents  from  the  joint.  It 
only  remains  to  vent  down  the  lower  vents  through  the 
core  and  a  somewhat  imperfect  communication  is  made. 


Fig.  4: 

The  success  of  this  method  depends  largely  on  the  sand 
under  and  around  the  pattern  being  evenly  tempered,  and 
sufficiently  porous  to  permit  the  gases  to  circulate  freely. 
See  Fig.  6. 

The  value  of  working  green-sands  with  the  least  possible 
amount  of  water  is  forcibly  demonstrated  by  the  following 
illustrations  :  When  making  cast-iron  flasks  with  an  upper 
and  lower  web  on  the  sides,  it  invariably  happens  that 
more  or  less  repairing  needs  to  be  done  at  the  edges  after 
the  pattern  has  been  drawn  out  of  the  sand.  Should  it 
happen  that  a  careless  or  ignorant  moulder  attempts  this, 
he  will  try  to  facilitate  the  operation  by  a  plentiful  applica- 
tion of  water,  the  steam  generated  from  which,  when  the 
metal  rises  to  that  part,  no  ordinary  venting  is  able  to 
carry  away.  Now  there  are  very  few  moulders  of  any  ex- 
perience whatever  who  have  not  seen  more  than  one  flask 
utterly  spoiled  on  this  account,  and  yet  they  insist  upon  a 


Venting.  504  Venting. 

free  use  of  water,  for  the  same  reason,  on  other  important 
moulds,  evidently  persuading  themselves  that  because  it  is 
hidden  under  a  flask  no  such  harm  can  ensue.  It  most 
assuredly  does ;  and  only  the  added  pressure  in  the  covered 
moulds  prevents  a  complete  disaster  always,  but  even  that 
fails  in  eradicating  the  scabs  and  dirt. 

The  writer  remembers  a  foundry  that  made  a  specialty 
of  pistons,  the  two  rings  and  spring  for  which  were  made 
as  separate  castings.  As  these  were  turned  all  over,  and 
ought  to  present  an  absolutely  clean  face  throughout  their 
entire  surface,  it  was  considered  by  all  to  be  a  critical  job, 
and  many  castings  were  rejected  because  of  the  pin-holes 
and  dirt  which,  no  matter  how  careful  the  moulding,  would 
be  revealed  when  the  skin  was  broken.  One  man  in  the 
shop,  by  some  considered  a  crank,  kept  reminding  them 
that  they  were  using  too  much  water  and  coal-facing,  and 
that  as  long  as  they  did  this  they  would  never  make  a  per- 
manent success  of  the  job.  How  he  was  answered  by  the 
indignant  failures  around  him  need  not  be  related  here. 
The  foreman,  fearing  that  this  crank's  boast  of  being  able 
to  make  them  clean  might  reach  the  ears  of  his  superiors, 
thought  to  silence  him  forever  by  giving  him  one  of  the 
largest  springs  to  make,  fully  expecting  that  he  would  fail 
in  making  good  his  boast,  and  intending  to  use  that  as  a 
means  for  ridding  himself  of  an  intolerable  nuisance.  In 
this,  however,  he  was  deceived.  The  crank  dug  his  hole 
deep  and  wide,  and  filled  it  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
pattern  with  dry  old  sand  from  the  scrap-pile,  after  which 
he  prepared  his  facing-sand,  which  consisted  of  finely  sifted 
old  sand  just  moist  enough  to  bind  together.  With  the 
exception  of  that  portion  immediate  to  the  runner,  the 
whole  was  faced  with  the  dry  mixture,  and  as  the  gate 
which  he  used  was  a  very  fine  drop-gate,  very  little  of  the 
coal-facing  sufficed.  With  a  sharp,  fine  vent-wire  he 
pricked  through  the  cope  to  the  pattern,  and  with  a  larger 


Venting.  505  Venting. 

one  round  and  under  it.  After  finishing  clean  with  abso- 
lutely no  water,  he  returned  the  cope  and  made  his  runner- 
basin,  which  held  almost  all  the  iron  required  for  the  cust- 
ing.  He  flooded  this  basin  instantly  with  the  hottest  iron 
procurable,  in  a  manner  which  made  it  impossible  for  any 
dirt  to  enter  the  small  gate  he  had  made.  In  went  the 
iron  at  its  leisure,  and  out  through  every  little  hole  rushed 
the  hot  air  and  gas,  until  the  mould  filled,  when  the  iron 
spurted  upward  in  a  hundred  tiny  sprays.  Result :  The 
first  large  spring  ever  made  at  that  place  without  a  flaw. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  crank  remained.  Fig.  7  illus- 
trates the  crank's  mode  of  procedure. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  copes  need  venting  to 
permit  the  escape  of  steam  and  gas  ;  otherwise,  if  not  led 
upward,  they  may  force  an  entrance  into  the  mould  below, 
carrying  a  crust  of  sand  along.  The  holes  should  be  small. 
Large  holes  act  too  much  like  open  risers,  and  rob  the  mould 
of  that  steady  pressure  so  desirable  to  maintain  for  the 
support  of  other  surfaces  besides  the  cope.  When  copes 
that  have  been  vented  buckle,  the  true  cause  will  be 
found  in  the  sand. 

It  is  criminal  to  suppose  that  a  core  or  piece  of  mould, 
because  it  is  far  removed  from  the  upper  surface,  may  be 
left  unvented,  and  trust  to  the  pressure  above  preventing 
future  trouble  from  that  source.  If  the  certain  commo- 
tion created  at  that  precise  part  by  such  neglect  be  not 
immediately  apparent,  it  is  probable  that  more  or  less  of 
this  gas  which  has  entered  the  mould,  instead  of  passing 
outside  by  a  suitably  provided  vent,  is  held  imprisoned  in1 
some  part  of  the  casting,  and  is  likely  at  some  time  or  other 
to  reveal  itself  unpleasantly. 

One  reason  why  large  surfaces  in  open-sand  moulds  can, 
as  a  rule,  be  made  without  any  other  venting  than  a  mod- 
erately soft  bed  affords,  arises  from  the  fact  that  most  cast- 
ings, including  foundry-plates  made  after  this  manner,  are 


Venting.  506  Venting. 

not  required  to  be  very  correct,  a  slight  swell  or  scab  not 
materially  affecting  their  usefulness.  Nearly  all  beds  for 
open-sand  castings  can  be  made  moderately  soft,  as  before 
stated,  and  without  any  admixture  of  coal.  The  latter 
condition  limits  the  gas  present  to  whatever  gas-producing 
elements  are  contained  in  the  old  sand,  which  is  very  little; 
the  former  condition  is  favorable  to  a  free  absorption  of 
the  little  that  is  made. 

It  must  be  remembered  also  that  such  beds  are  not 
called  upon  to  resist  the  same  amount  of  pressure  that  is 
common  in  covered  work.  A  plate  2  inches  thick  in  open 
sand  exerts  a  pressure  downward  equal  to  |  pound  per 
square  inch;  the  same  plate  covered,  with  head-pressure 
of  2  feet,  would  be  6J  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Relieving  moulds  of  expanded  atmospheric  air  and  ac- 
cumulated gases  is  sometimes  as  difficult  an  operation  as 
any  that  are  connected  with  venting  the  sands  and  loam 
used  for  making  them.  Leaving  risers  open  in  order  to 
free  the  moulds  of  these  accumulations  is  not  to  be  thought 


of  where  the  materials  are  in  any  sense  deficient;  and  some 
adequate  means  must  otherwise  be  provided  for  the  expul- 
sion of  these  offending  gases.  One  manner  of  accomplishing 
this  is  to  make  large  basin  riser-heads  at  the  highest  point 
of  the  mould,  fill  the  basin  with  soft  hay  well  pressed  down, 
and  place  thereon  a  riddle,  with  weights  to  keep  it  there; 
or  make  good-sized  plug-risers,  and  place  over  each  a  piece 
of  fine  wire-cloth,  securing  it  in  such  a  manner  as  that 
nothing  shall  pass  out  except  through  the  netting.  By 


Venting. 


507 


Venting. 


either  of  these  means  the  mould  is  effectually  relieved  with- 
out any  of  the  roar  and  friction  which  usually  attend  open 
pouring  when  the  riser  area  is  limited. 

When  large  volumes  of  gas  must  necessarily  be  relieved 
by  a  very  limited  passageway,  either  from  cores  or  moulds, 
extra  precautions  should  be  taken,  and  one  great  help  is  to 
make  sure  that  the  atmosphere  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  vent  be  as  hot  as  possible.  A  considerable 
body  of  molten  iron  poured  down  under  the  mouth  of  the 
vent  is  better  than  lighted  shavings,  as  it  insures  a  steady 
heat  which  precludes  the  possibility  of  cold  air  interfering 
with  the  easy  egress  of  the  outcoming  gas. 


Eig.6 

When  the  gas  from  one  core  must  necessarily  pass 
through  another  core  to  reach  its  place  of  exit  there  should 
be  no  hesitation  about  making  such  connections  as  wilt 
convert  the  two  cores  into  one  practically.  This  may  be 
easily  accomplished  by  making  pipe-connections,  and, 
whether  the  final  exit  be  through  the  side,  top,  or  bottom, 
if  the  mould  be  an  important  one,  the  pipe  method  of 
securing  vents  should  be  strictly  adhered  to.  See  Fig.  8. 

Not  unfrequently  large  core-barrels  in  horizontal  moulds 
will  explode  with  disastrous  effect  during  the  process  of 
casting.  This  is  an  instance  where  the  dangerous  accumu- 
lations spoken  of  at  the  outset  are  made  possible  within 
the  hollow  barrel.  There  are  several  ways  of  preventing 


Venting.  508  Venting. 

these  explosions:  a  few  shavings  scattered  along  the  bottom 
and  ignited  when  pouring  commences  serve  to  burn  olf 
the  gases  as  they  exude  j  but  if  by  any  means  the  light 
should  cease  suddenly  before  the  casting  is  well  poured,  the 
danger  is  not  removed.  Where  practicable,  it  is  advisable 
to  fill  the  barrel  with  straw  or  shavings,  and  thus  exclndo 
the  atmosphere,  or  place  a  netting  of  wire-cloth  at  eacli 
end  that  will  exactly  fill  the  space:  this  acts  like  a  Davy- 
lamp,  prevents  the  flame  from  entering  the  barrel,  and 
allows  the  gas  to  burn  harmlessly  away  at  each  end. 

Large  round  or  flat  bottomed  tanks  and  compound 
cylinders  cast  with  their  open  ends  down,  making  it  neces- 
sary to  convey  the  gas  from  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  fur- 
nish an  interesting  phase  of  venting.  While  there  are 
many  methods  for  accomplishing  this,  it  is  certain  that  fill- 
ing the  core  with  sand,  coke,  straw,  etc.,  is  by  all  means 
the  safest,  and  should  always  be  adopted  with  castings  of 
magnitude  that  are  costly  to  produce. 

By  this  means  suitable  provision  can  be  made  for  carry- 
ing off  what  little  gas  is  formed  by  the  brick  core,  etc.,  and 
all  danger  from  admixture  with  atmospheric  air  success- 
fully avoided. 

For  ordinary  pan-castings,  however,  much  quicker 
methods  must  be  devised,  even  if  some  risks  are  taken.  It 
is  therefore  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  such  castings  made 
without  any  particular  attention  to  the  vent  other  than  to 
cut  a  single  gutter  from  the  middle,  underneath,  and  con- 
nect with  a  pipe  which  leads  it  to  the  floor-level.  An  explo- 
sion once  in  a  while  prompts  the  moulder  to  observe  greater 
care,  but  it  is  for  a  short  time  only.  A  bad  feature  at 
some  foundries  is  to  place  large  quantities  of  shavings  and 
wood  in  the  interior,  and  set  them  on  fire  before  casting 
commences:  this  creates  an  instant  expansion  of  the  core, 
and  very  often  loosens  the  loam  from  the  bricks.  A  little 
iron  run  down  a  sloping  gutter  to  the  middle  will  heat  the 


Venting. 


509 


Venting. 


atmosphere  within  to  create  a  draught  which,  if  there  be 
two  opposite  pipes,  will  convey  the  gas  harmlessly  away. 
By  leading  a  good-sized  pipe  up  to  the  surface,  and  cover- 
ing it  with  wire-cloth,  all  communication  with  the  inside 
is  shut  off,  and  the  gas  may  be  lighted  as  any  ordinary 
vent.  The  same  result  is  obtained  when  the  gutter  leading 
from  the  middle  is  filled  with  cinders  or  straw.  A  dumb- 
vent  is  a  channel  constructed  from  the  pit  through  the 
wall  of  the  foundry,  or  to  some  part  within  that  is  remote 
from  the  possibility  of  sparks  igniting  the  gas,  and  thus 
causing  an  explosion. 

A  remarkable  incident  occurred  at  a  foundry  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  writer  was  engaged  moulding  a  large  puri- 
fier in  loam.  The  foreman,  a  self-willed  fellow,  with  little 
knowledge  or  experience  in  that  class  of  work,  strenu- 
ously opposed  any  special  measures  being  taken  for  carry- 
ing off  the  vent,  and  the  mould,  rammed  within  iron  curbs 
which  rested  on  the  plate  lugs  outside  the  slings,  was  duly 
prepared  for  casting,  leaving  the  vent-hole  to  take  care  of 
itself  down  at  the  bottom  between  the  pit-wall  and  the 
curbs.  As  I  had  a  decided  objection  to  pouring  a  piece  so 


Tents 


Cope 


Floor 


Fig.  7 

inadequately  vented,  the  foreman  took  the  ladle  and 
poured  it  with  great  pomp,  exclaiming,  as  he  passed  on  his 
way  to  the  cupola,  "  I  told  you  so  ! "  The  words  had 


Venting. 


510 


Venting. 


hardly  escaped  his  lips  when  a  most  terrific  explosion  oc- 
curred. The  mould  and  fastenings,  being  contained  within 
the  curbs,  were  lifted  entirely  from  the  floor  and  fell  back 
again  in  a  leaning  position,  scattering  the  runner  in  all 
directions.  But,  strange  to  relate,  the  casting  was  com- 


Fig.  8 

paratively  uninjured,  the  fine  gates  having  congealed  in 
the  interval.     The  foreman  was  very  much  surprised. 

When  shallow  pans  are  cast  in  casings  or  moulds  sup- 
ported above  the  floor  level  no  special  venting  is  required, 
as  the  free  circulation  of  air  prevents  any  accumulation  of 


Venting.  511  Venting. 

gases.  A  few  shavings  will  serve  to  light  at  once  the  vents 
of  deeper  close-moulds  cast  after  this  manner,  and  the  gas 
will  burn  away  freely  in  the  air. 

Brick  walls  of  loam-work  are  best  vented  by  choosing 
such  material  for  the  loam  as  will  be  sufficiently  porous 
when  dry  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  the  gases  out- 
wards, and  this  is  why  as  much  care  should  be  practised  in 
making  the  building-loam  porous  as  there  is  for  the  facing- 
loam;  otherwise,  the  gas  must  enter  the  mould  and  be 
forcibly  ejected  at  the  riser  and  runners.  This  is  why 
there  is  such  a  rush  of  air  at  the  moment  vertically  cast 
moulds  are  filled  where  no  attention  is  given  to  this 
particular.  All  connections,  such  as  branches,  flanges, 
brackets,  etc.,  should  be  vented  direct  with  wires  or  straws, 
and  these  be  carefully  connected  with  the  upright  vents, 
which  should  in  all  cases  be  set  at  intervals  around  the 
mould  when  it  is  rammed  in  the  pit.  Gases  generated  in 
loam  covering-plates  may  either  pass  through  holes  in  the 
plate  or  be  led  to  the  edge  by  layers  of  straw  set  down  at 
the  bottom  of  the  prickers  before  it  is  covered  with  loam. 
Core  covering-plates  for  cylinders,  condensers,  cisterns, 
etc.,  are  vented  by  means  of  holes  cast  therein  to  lead  the 
gases  inside  the  core.  Flat  brick  surfaces  need  only  to  be 
openly  built  and  the  spaces  filled  with  fine  cinders,  con- 
necting them  with  whatever  means  for  outlet  may  be  pro- 
vided. 

Dry-sand  moulds,  if  they  are  made  in  suitable  materials 
and  well  dried,  require  little  or  no  venting,  except  in  con- 
fined parts  that  are  remote  from  the  ordinary  means  of 
exit  for  escaping  gas.  Projections  of  sand  that  are  almost 
surrounded  with  metal,  and  such  portions  of  the  mould  as 
are  least  likely  to  be  dry,  need  some  special  venting — the 
former  for  the  escape  of  gases,  the  latter  for  steam.  If 
the  ordinary  coal-facing  is  used  to  make  dry-sand  moulds, 
then  the  venting  needs  to  be  in  every  respect  as  particular 


Vent- wire.  512  Vent  wire. 

as  for  green-sand.  But  if  the  facing  be  simply  a  refractory 
sharp  sand  with  just  sufficient  qlay  and  flour  to  make  it 
cohesive,  venting,  as  before  stated,  may  be  almost  dis- 
pensed with. 

Venting-cores  might  be  very  much  simplified  if  the  sands 
used  for  making  them  were  chosen  with  the  view  of  meet- 
ing the  necessities  of  every  case;  but  too  frequently  they 
are  chosen  at  haphazard,  and  every  core  is  made  from 
the  same  pile  of  sand,  no  matter  what  it  may  be  required 
for.  Cores  that  are  difficult  to  vent  on  account  of  their 
diminutiveness  may  sometimes  be  used  successfully  with- 
out vents  if  they  are  made  from  washed  sand  stiffened 
with  a  little  glue-water.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
gas-producing  substances  are  eradicated  from  the  sand  by 
washing,  and  the  small  quantity  of  glue  required  to  make 
it  cohesive  is  too  slight  to  seriously  affect  it. 

While  cores,  generally  speaking,  may  be  considered  as  a 
kind  of  dry-sand  mould,  there  must  be  every  attention 
given  to  core- venting,  as  in  the  majority  of  cases  they  are 
surrounded  with  the  molten  metal,  which  drives  the  gases 
to  the  centre  from  all  directions,  and  if  instant  egress  is 
not  given  to  this  constant  flow,  the  core  is  shattered  and 
an  eruption  occurs  within  the  mould. 


Vent-wire. — The  wire  with  which  a  moulder  pierces 
sand,  in  order  to  form  passagewrays  for  the  escape  of  gases. 
Large  ones  should  be  made  fast  to  a  crutch-handle,  and 
the  entering  end  for  an  inch  high  increased  about  ^  inch 
in  diameter  and  pointed.  The  point  then  pierces  the  sand 
easily,  and  forms  a  passage  slightly  larger  than  the  wire  ; 
which  follows  with  little  effort,  there  being  comparatively 
no  friction.  Smaller  wires  will  enter  very  freely  if  the  end 
be  simply  cut  off  square  across  and  perceptibly  enlarged 
by  a  slight  jumping.  See  VENTING. 


Verdigris.  513  Vulcanite. 

Verdigris. — A  very  poisonous  diacetate  of  copper, 
which  forms  in  a  green  crust  on  its  surface  if  exposed  to  a 
damp  atmosphere.  It  is  useful  in  the  arts  as  a  pigment. 
See  COPPER. 

Vermilion,  or  mercuric  sulphide,  occurs  native  as 
cinnabar,  a  dull  red  mineral,  which  is  the  most  important 
ore  of  mercury;  bright  red  in  color;  has  a  good  body,  and 
is  useful  as  a  pigment  for  paints.  See  MERCURY. 

Vertical  Casting.— See  ORDNANCE  ;  CAST-IRON- 
PIPES  ;  HORIZONTAL  CASTING. 

Vinegar  Bronze. — This  is  for  brass  goods,  and  con- 
sists of  vinegar  10  galls.,  blue  vitriol  3  Ibs.,  muriatic  acid 
3  Ibs.,  corrosive  sublimate  4  grains,  sal-ammoniac  2  Ibs., 
alum  8  ozs.  See  BRONZE. 

Vitreous. — Resembling  glass;  pertaining  to  or  con- 
sisting of  glass.  See  GLASSY;  SLAG. 

Vitrifiable. — Capable  of  being  converted  into  glass 
by  heat  and  fusion.  See  FLUX  ;  SLAG. 

Vitriol. — See  SULPHURIC  ACID. 

Volatile. — A  body  is  termed  volatile  when  it  is  capa- 
ble of  evaporating,  or  passing  easily  into  an  aeriform  state, 
as  alcohol,  ether,  etc.  See  VAPOR  ;  ALCOHOL. 

Vulcanite,  or  ebonite,  is  caoutchouc  mixed  with  half 
its  weight  of  sulphur  and  hardened  by  pressure  and  heat- 
ing. It  is  very  hard,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  used 
extensively  for  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  knife-handles, 
and  combs.  See  INDIA-RUBBER. 


Wages  Table. 


514 


Wages  Table. 


w. 


Wages  Table. 

CALCULATED  ON  A  SCALE  OF  TEN  HOURS'  LABOR  PER  DAY;  THE 
TIME,  IN  HOURS  AND  DAYS,  is  NOTED  IN  THE  LEFT-HAND 
COLUMN,  AND  THE  AMOUNT  OF  WAGES  UNDER  THE  RESPEC- 
TIVE HEADINGS  AS  NOTED  BELOW. 


Hours.  $1.00    $1.50    $200    $2.50 


1.33}$  1.50 
2.66^3.00 
4.00  4.50 
5.88U6.00 
6.66%  7.00 
8.00  9.00 


If  the  desired  number  of  days  or  amount  of  wages  is  not  in  the  table,  double 
or  treble  any  suitable  number  of  days  or  amount  of  money,  as  the  case  may  be, 
until  you  obtain  the  desired  number  of  days  and  the  wages  to  correspond. 


Walker's  Converter.  515  Waste-wax  Process. 

Walker's  Converter. — This  converter  differs  from 
the  Bessemer  and  others  in  having  a  straight  neck,  so  that 
it  can  be  charged  or  poured  from  either  side.  This  equal- 
izes the  wear  on  the  lining.  See  BESSEMER  STEEL. 

Wall-cranes  are  a  very  handy  and  important  addition 
to  the  foundry  or  the  forge.  They  can  be  arranged  so 
that  the  large  jib  or  traveller  will  pass  over  them  in  the 
performance  of  the  heaviest  work,  leaving  the  moulders 
engaged  on  the  light  and  medium  classes  of  moulding  to 
continue  their  operations  uninterruptedly.  See  CRANES. 

.Warpiiigof  Castings.— See  STRAIGHTENING  CAST- 
INGS. 

Wash  for  Cores. — See  CORE-WASH. 

Washing". — When  a  loam-moulder  moistens  the  hard- 
ened surface  of  his  mould  with  water,  preparatory  to  chins- 
ing  and  finishing  with  the  tools,  the  process  is  termed 
washing.  If  some  portion  of  a  mould  is  carried  away  by  a 
current  of  metal  running  violently  over  it,  it  is  said  to  be 
washed  off.  See  FOUNTAIN  RUNNER. 

TVaste  Grases. — The  most  efficient  mode  of  utilizing 
the  waste  heat  from  puddling  and  other  furnaces  is  the 
regenerative-gas  furnace,  where  it  is  applied  to  raise  both 
the  gas  fuel  and  the  air  for  burning  it  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture previous  to  their  meeting  at  the  point  of  combustion. 
See  REGENERATIVE  FURNACE, 

Waster. — A  bad  casting,  so  called,  in  some  localities. 

Waste-wax  Process. — Making  statuary,  figures, 
etc.,  by  melting  out  a  wax  model  of  the  object,  which  has 


Water.  516  Water-bellows. 

been  previously  encased  in  loam  or  composition,  and  filling 
the  space  with  molten  metal.  See  CIRE  PERDUE;  STATUE- 
FOUNDING. 

Water  is  a  compound  of  8  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen 
with  one  of  hydrogen  ;  by  bulk  it  is  1  of  oxygen  to  2  of 
hydrogen,  and  is  present  in  nature  in  three  forms — solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous.  It  is  transparent,  tasteless,  and  in- 
odorous. It  evaporates  at  all  temperatures,  boils  at  212°, 
and  freezes  at  32°.  At  60°  a  cubic  inch  of  pure  water 
weighs  252.45  grains — exactly  815  times  the  weight  of  an 
equal  bulk  of  air.  The  American  standard  gallon  weighs 
58,970  grains  of  pure  distilled  water  at  the  maximum  density 
of  484.  The  weight  of  an  imperial  gallon  is  70,000  grains, 
or  10  pounds. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  is  taken  at  1000  ounces,  and  62.5 
pounds  for  convenience  in  reckoning;  but  the  actual  weight 
is  998.068  ounces,  or  62.37925  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Water  expands  TTVr  °f  ^s  bulk  in  freezing. 

The  height  of  a  column  of  water  at  60°,  equivalent  to 
the  pressure  of  1  pound  per  square  inch,  is  2.30  feet,  and 
the  height  of  atmosphere  is  33.94  feet.  The  number  of 
cubic  feet  in  a  ton  of  water  is  35. 84,  and  a  cubic  foot  of 
sea-water  weighs  64.31  pounds.  See  HYDROGEN. 

Water-bellows. — A  blast-machine  consisting  of  two 
cisterns  partly  filled  with  water,  in  which  are  placed  the 
induction  and  eduction  pipes,  both  standing  a  little  above 
the  water.  Inverted  chambers  suspended  on  the  ends  of  a 
working-beam  inclose  the  pipes  within  the  cisterns,  and 
as  each  chamber  is  made  to  rise  alternately  the  air  is  drawn 
up  through  the  induction-pipe  into  the  chamber,  and  ex- 
pelled at  the  eduction-pipe  by  means  of  suitable  valves; 
the  valve  being  at  the  top  for  induction,  at  the  bottom  for 
eduction. 


w'-it:--  -oshes.  517  Water -jacketed  Cupola. 

\Vater-l)Oslies. — Hollow  cast-iron  boshes  or  chambers, 
through  which  a  constant  supply  of  water  is  made  to  circu- 
late, to  prevent  overheating  and  consequent  fusion.  See 
FINERY  FURNACE;  TYMP. 

Water-core  Barrel.— See  ORDNANCE. 
Waterfall  Blower.— See  TROMP. 

\Vater-gas  is  gas  produced  by  passing  steam  over  red- 
hot  coke,  which  changes  it  to  carbonic  oxide  and  hydro- 
gen, in  which  state  it  is  made  to  absorb  as  much  carbon  as 
is  necessary,  by  passing  through  a  retort  in  which  rosin  is 
being  subjected  to  the  process  of  decomposition.  See 
GAS. 

Water-glass  is  usually  prepared  by  boiling  silica  with 
caustic  alkali  under  pressure.  It  is  soluble  only  in  boil- 
ing water,  and  has  the  appearance  of  glass  when  pure  and 
solid.  See  SOLUBLE  GLASS. 

Water-jacketed  Cupola.— The  Keims  cupola  is 
jacketed,  and  is  described  by  the  inventor  as  follows:  In 
this  new  cupola  there  is  no  burning  out  at  or  about  the 
tuyeres;  there  are  no  clinkers  to  be  chipped  off  daily,  and 
repairs  to  be  made  before  another  heat  can  be  run;  and  the 
bottom  need  not  be  dropped  for  months,  if  you  so  desire. 
To  accomplish  these  results  the  inventor  uses  a  three-foot 
water-jacket,  with  the  tuyeres  placed  as  near  the  bottom 
of  the  jacket  as  possible;  the  blast  being  upward,  and  the 
jacket  not  allowing  anything  to  adhere  to  it,  prevents 
burning  out  or  clinking.  The  lower  portion  is  part  and 
parcel  of  the  jacket  (but  not  water-jacketed),  and  is  lined 
with  fire-brick,  so  as  to  retain  the  heat  in  the  metal  well 


Water-proof  Glue.  518  Water-proof  Polish. 

and  to  prevent  chilling.  This  improved  bottom  and  jacket 
may  be  used  in  connection  with  the  old  cupolas  now  in 
use  by  simply  taking  off  enough  of  the  bottom  of  the  old 
in  which  to  insert  the  new,  thus  avoiding  any  great  ex- 
pense in  making  the  change.  As  there  is  no  hanging  or 
clogging  in  this  cupola,  the  blast  has  perfect  circulation 
throughout  the  entire  mass  that  is  to  be  melted,  and  so  is 
a  great  fuel- saver,  as  every  particle  of  fuel  is  used  to 
the  best  advantage.  As  the  heat  of  the  jacket  can- 
not be  raised  above  240°  Fahrenheit,  it  will  readily  be 
seen  that  there  will  be  no  burning  out,  and  that  with 
ordinary  care  a  jacket  will  last  as  long  as  a  steel  boiler; 
for  the  whole  arrangement  is  made  of  ^-inch  steel  plate, 
and  as  the  overflow  is  higher  than  the  jacket,  it  would 
be  only  through  gross  negligence  if  it  should  burn.  In 
fact,  the  jacket  would  be  the  coldest  point  as  long 
as  any  water  remained.  The  metal  produced  is  of 
the  best  quality,  and  has  a  ring  almost  equal  to  bell- 
metal. 

Water-pipes. — See  CAST-IRON  PIPES. 
Water-proof  Cement. — See  CEMENT. 

Water-proof  Glue. — Melt  common  glue  with  the 
smallest  quantity  of  water  possible;  add  by  degrees  dry- 
ing or  boiled'  linseed  oil.  The  ingredients  must  be 
well  stirred  while  the  oil  is  being  added.  See  GLUE; 
CEMENT. 

Water-proof  Polish. — Alcohol  1  pint,  gum-ben- 
zoin 2  oz.,  gum-sandarach  J  oz.,  gum-anirne  }  oz. ; 
put  these  in  a  stoppered  bottle,  and  set  in  a  hot-water  or 


Water-sprinkler.  519  Weathering  Ore. 

sand-bath  until  dissolved;  then  strain  and  add  J  gill  of 
best  poppy-oil,  and  shake  well  together. 

Water-sprinkler.— See  SPKINKLING-POT. 

Water-tuyere. — This  class  of  tuyere  is  used  at  the 
blast-furnaces  to  protect  the  walls  of  the  hearth  from  the 
intense  heat  that  is  generated  by  the  hot  blast  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  tuyeres.  They  are  of  various  kinds; 
some  being  rectangular  in  section  and  made  of  either  cast 
or  wrought  iron  or  bronze,  while  others  are  simply  a  spiral 
tube,  used  alone  or  cast  within  a  solid  block.  This  tuyere 
is  kept  cool  by  a  circulating  current  of  water. 

Wax. — Beeswax  is  a  secretion  of  the  honey-bee.  In  its 
ordinary  state  it  is  yellow,  but  is  bleached  white  by  expos- 
ing it  for  some  time  in  thin  slices  to  the  joint  action  of  air 
and  moisture. 

Modellers'  wax  consists  of  beeswax  13,  rosin  12,  paraffin- 
wax  26,  linseed-oil  4;  the  rosin  and  oil  to  be  well  boiled 
together  before  adding  the  other  ingredients. 

Sculptors'  wax  is  composed  of  one  part  each  of  tallow, 
turpentine,  and  pitch  to  ten  parts  of  beeswax.  See  VEGE- 
TABLE WAX. 

Wax-modelling.— See  STATUE-FOUNDING. 

Weathering  Ore. — Such  ores  of  iron  as  contain 
pyrites  or  shale  in  a  large  proportion  are  subjected,  before 
calcination,  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  and  moisture, 
by  which  means  the  sulphur  is  oxidized  and  dissolved  out 
by  the  rains.  Being  spread  on  the  ground  in  the  open  air 
the  process  is  called  weatliering.  See  CALCINATION  ;  CAST 
IRON;  KILN. 


Web  smoother.  520  Weighting  Copes. 

Wel)-smoother.— See  SLICKER. 

Wedge  is  one  of  the  mechanical  powers  which,  in 
principle,  is  simply  a  modification  of  the  inclined  plane. 
This  implement,  simple  as  it  is,  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  important  tools  in  foundry  practice.  It  is  made 
of  wood  and  cast  iron,  but  the  latter  kind  is  to  be  depre- 
cated, because  of  its  liability  to  snap.  Wrought-iron 
wedges,  well  taken  care  of,  are  a  good  investment  in  any 
foundry. 

Wedgwood-ware. — Porcelain  made  by  the  firm 
of  Wedgwood  at  Burslum,  Staffordshire,  England.  Josiah 
Wedgwood  created  the  art  in  Britain.  See  POTTERY- 
MOULDING. 

Weighing-scales. — A  more  active  and  intelligent 
practice  in  foundry  operations  has  made  weighing-scales 
a  prime  necessity  on  the  charging -platform.  With- 
out accuracy  in  charging-material  it  is  useless  to  expect 
uniformity  of  mixture,  and  the  result  is  invariably  a 
marked  failure  wherever  the  quantities  of  materials  in- 
troduced are  left  to  the  furnaceman's  judgment;  the  latter 
word  being,  in  this  instance,  a  misnomer,  as  the  fact  of 
being  without  scales  evidences  a  lack  of  sound  judgment. 
See  RATIO  OF  FUEL  TO  IRON;  CHARGE;  CUPOLA. 

Weighting  Copes.  —  This  operation  consists  in 
placing  as  much  weight  upon  copes  as  will  hold  them 
down  securely,  independent  of  any  other  means,  such  as 
bolting,  binding,  clamping,  etc.,  when  the  pressure  of 
molten  metal  tends  to  lift  or  force  them  upwards,  such 
pressure  (per  square  inch)  being  always  proportionate  to 
the  depth  from  the  metal's  surface  in  the  runner-basin 


Weights  of  Castings.  521  Weights  of  Metals. 

to  the  cope's  surface  below.  The  total  pressure  is  the 
amount  per  square  inch  multiplied  into  the  area.  For 
example,  a  cope  covering  a  plate  4  feet  square  is  9  inches 
deep,  and  the  runner-basin  adds  9  inches  more,  making  18 
inches  in  all.  Now,  as  18  inches  pressure  is  exerted  on 
every  inch  of  the  plate  while  the  metal  remains  liquid,  it 
only  remains  to  ascertain  what  pressure  a  vertical  column 
1  inch  square  and  18  inches  high  exerts, — in  oilier  words,  to 
-find  the  weight  of  such  a  column,  and  multiply.it  into  the 
area, — to  discover  what  weight  is  required  to  hold  the  cope 
down;  as,  18  X  .26  (the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  cast  iron) 
equals  4.68  pounds  pressure  on  each  inch,  which,  when 
multiplied  into  the  total  area,  48  X  48,  equals  2304 
inches;  which,  again,  multiplied  by  4.68  pounds,  gives 
10,782  pounds  as  the  total  pressure.  Hence  exactly  that 
amount  of  weight,  including  the  cope's  weight,  would  be 
required  to  balance  the  pressure  exerted  against  it,  unless 
the  head  of  pressure  be  cut  off  by  a  system  of  risers,  to 
relieve  it  at  some  antecedent  point  below.  When  the  full 
head  of  pressure  is  imposed  some  extra  weight  is  needed, 
as  fins,  gate-surfaces,  etc.,  act  in  proportion  to  their  area, 
and  the  possibility  of  shock  is  a  contingency  that  will 
always  be  adequately  provided  for  by  the  wise  moulder. 
See  CUT-OFF;  RISERS;  PRESSURE  OF  MOLTED  METAL; 
HYDRAULICS;  HYDROSTATIC  BELLOWS. 


Weights  of  Casting's. — To  ascertain  the  weight  of 
a  casting  in  any  of  the  various  metals,  obtain,  first,  the 
number  of  cubic  inches  contained  in  the  casting,  and  then 
multiply  that  number  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  the 
metal  employed.  For  the  weights  of  various  metals,  cubic 
inch  and  cubic  foot,  see  WEIGHTS  OF  METALS. 


Weights   of  Metals.— The  following  table  shows 


Welding. 


Welding. 


the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch   and    cubic  foot  of  different 
metals;  also  specific  gravity: 


Metals. 

Weight  of 
One  Cubic  Inch. 

Weight  of 
One  Cubic  Foot. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Cast  iron        . 

Pounds. 
263 

Pounds. 
*   450 

7  207 

Wrought  iron       

281 

486 

7  788 

Steel  

283 

490 

7  833 

Gold,  cast  

.696 

1  210 

19  258 

Silver   cast 

378 

654 

10  474 

Copper  cast 

317 

540 

8  788   • 

Tin   block     

263 

455 

7  291 

Ziuc  cast 

248 

437 

6  861 

Brass  J  <*>PPf  »  }.    . 

282 

525 

7  820 

}  zinc  1       f  ' 
Lead,  cast  

.410 

710 

11  352 

Aluminum 

092 

160 

2  560 

B--O-  -!  zs±  1  1 

Bronze  j-jr10!--- 

.272 
.309 

480 
535 

7.680 
8.560 

Welding  is  the  union  produced  between  the  surfaces 
of  two  malleable  metals  when  they  have  been  heated  to 
fushion  and  rolled,  pressed,  or  hammered.  Few  metals 
are  susceptible  to  this  process;  but  iron  is  the  principal 
weldable  metal.  To  prevent  oxidation  of  the  surfaces, 
when  the  pieces  to  be  welded  are  taken  from  the  fire  they 
they  are  sometimes  sprinkled  with  sand  or  some  other  sub- 
stance, which  fuses  and  spreads  over  the  heated  surface. 
Borax  alone  is  employed  for  steel  at  times,  but  preference 
is  given  to  certain  compositions  which  are  considered  to 
favor  a  more  intimate  joining  of  the  pieces.  One  composi- 
tion for  either  iron  or  steel,  or  both  together,  is  to  calcine 
and  pulverize  together  100  parts  iron  or  steel  filings,  10 
sal-ammoniac,  6  borax,  5  balsam  of  copaiba.  One  of  the 
pieces  is  to  be  heated  red,  carefully  cleaned  of  scale,  the 
composition  is  to  be  spread  upon  it,  and  the  other  piece 


Wet-blacking.  523  White  Alloys. 

applied  at  a  white  heat  and  welded  with  the  hammer. 
Another:  Fuse  borax  with  one  sixteenth  its  weight  of  sal- 
ammoniac;  cool,  pulverize,  and  mix  with  an  equal  weight 
of  quicklime,  when  it  is  to  be  sprinkled  on  the  red-hot 
iron  and  the  latter  placed  in  the  fire.  A  German  powder 
is  :  Iron-turnings  4,  borax  3,  borate  of  iron  2,  water  1.  See 
SOLDERING;  BRAZING;  BURNING. 

Wet-blacking  is  composed  of  water  mixed  with  clay 
in  varying  proportions,  along  with  one  or  more  of  the  car- 
bon-facings. See  BLACK-WASH. 

Wheelbarrows. — There  is  now  an  almost  infinite 
variety  of  wheelbarrows,  manufactured  and  ready  to  hand, 
including  steel  foundry-barrows,  steel  square  trays,  pig- 
iron  barrows  with  one  or  two  wheels,  charging-barrows  for 
blast-furnaces  and  gas-retorts,  etc. ,  always  in  stock  at  the 
foundry-supply  dealers. 

Wheel-moulding  Machines.— See  MOULDING- 
MACHINES. 

Wheel-pits.— See  CAR- WHEELS. 

Whetstone. — A  hone  or  smooth  flat  stone  for  sharp- 
ening edge-tools.  See  TURKEY-STONE. 

Whip-hoist. — A  small  single  block-and-tackle  for 
quick  hoisting  of  light  loads.  See  CRANES. 

Whirling-runner.— See  SKIM-GATE. 

White  Alloys  are  all  such  alloys  as  tutenag,  packfong, 
British-plate,  German-silver,  etc.,  which  are  usually  com- 
pounded with  the  view  of  imitating  the  more  costly  metal — 


White  Argentan.  524  White  Argentati. 

silver.  They  differ  in  quality  and  price,  according  to  their 
composition.  Nickel  is  the  whitening  as  well  as  the  harden- 
ing metal  used  in  these  alloys,  and  the  amount  entering 
into  their  composition  varies  according  to  quality.  The 
lower  grades  of  nickel  alloys  contain  about  nickel  4,  cop- 
per 20,  zinc  16,  while  the  better  qualities  may  have  nickel 
6,  copper  20,  zinc  8.  Such  alloys  are  suitable  for  plated 
ware,  mathematical  instruments,  parts  of  musical  instru- 
ments, saddlery,  etc. 

The  white  copper  of  the  Chinese,  which  bears  a  close  re- 
semblance to  some  German-silver,  contains  nickel  31.6, 
copper  40.4,  zinc  25.4,  iron  2.6.  It  may  be  surmised  that 
the  iron  sometimes  found  in  these  white  alloys  has  been 
accidentally  introduced  with  the  nickel,  but  when  the 
quantity  is  small  it  is  not  prejudicial.  Frick's  silver  is  an 
imitation  composed  of  nickel  17.48,  copper  53.39,  zinc  13. 

When  tin  is  used  for  hardening  and  whitening  alloys,  we 
obtain  inferior  white  alloys,  as  Britannia  metal,  pewter, 
solders,  etc.  The  best  pewter  is  mostly  composed  of  tin 
with  a  small  percentage  of  copper,  yet  if  not  more  than 
one  sixth  of  lead  be  added  the  alloy  will  be  white,  hard, 
and  sonorous,  but  without  gloss.  A  little  antimony  adds 
both  to  the  whiteness  and  the  hardness  of  the  tin  alloys. 

For  a  description  of  the  principal  white  alloys  now  in  use, 
see  MOCK  SILVER;  SPECULUM  METAL;  GERMAN-SILVER; 
GERMAN  WHITE  COPPER;  PACKFONG;  IMITATION  SILVER; 
WHITE  ARGENTAN;  TUTENAG;  PARISIAN  WHITE  METAL; 
QUEEN'S  METAL  ;  SPANISH  TUTANIA  ;  GERMAN  TUTANIA  ; 
PEWTER;  BRITANNIA  METAL;  PEWTERER'S  TEMPER;  SOL- 
DERS; BABBITT-METAL;  TYPE-METAL;  SHOT;  POT-METAL; 
FUSIBLE  ALLOYS, 

White  Argentan. — A  beautiful  silver  imitation  ; 
nickel  3,  copper  8,  zinc  35.  See  SILVER  ;  GERMAN-SILVER  ; 
BRITANNIA  METAL. 


White  Arsenic.  525  White  Rubber. 

White  Arsenic. — Arsenious  acid,  or  oxide  of  arsenic. 
See  ARSENIC. 

White  Brass. — A  term  used  for  white  alloys.  See 
WHITE  ALLOYS. 

White  Copper. — For  this  mixture  see  WHITE  AL- 
LOYS. 

White  Copperas.— Copperas  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
found  in  Chili. 

White-flux. — See  FLUX  ;  BLACK-FLUX. 
White  Iron. — See  HARD  CAST  IRON;  CAST  IRON. 

White  Lead. — The  carbonate  of  lead.  It  is  produced 
by  several  methods,  and  extensively  employed  as  a  paint. 
The  Dutch  method,  usually  considered  a  good  one,  is  to 
place  thin  sheets  of  lead  rolled  into  scrolls  into  earthen 
pots  with  weak  vinegar  or  acetic  acid.  These  are  fitted 
with  lead  covers  and  closely  packed,  and  buried  in  spent 
tan-bark.  The  acid  corrodes  the  metal,  forming  a  coating 
of  acetate  of  lead.  The  carbonic  acid  set  free  by  the  de- 
composing vegetable  matter  displaces  the  acetic  acid,  com- 
bines with  the  lead,  and  the  carbonate  is  formed.  The 
acetic  acid  thus  released  attacks  more  metal,  which  is 
again  carbonized,  and  thus,  with  occasional  charges  of 
vinegar,  the  operation  is  continued  and  the  lead  keeps 
constantly  changing.  See  LEAD. 

White  Metals. — See  WHITE  ALLOYS. 

White  Rubber. — White  vulcanite,  made  by  adding 
white  pigments  to  the  sulphur  and  caoutchouc  during  the 
manufacture  of  vulcanite.  See  INDIA-RUBBER. 


White  Sand.  526  Whiting  Cupola. 

White  Sand. — The  silver-sand  is  a  white  sand,  and 
results  from  the  disintegration  of  soft,  pure,  siliceous 
sandstone.  Beach-Sand  in  some  localities  is  also  a  white 
sand,  but  not  so  pure  as  silver-sand,  as  it  invariably  con- 
tains more  or  less  of  other  substances,  besides  being  some- 
what calcareous  from  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
rendering  it  inferior  to  silver-sand  in  refractoriness.  See 
SAND  ;  FACING-SAND;  CORE-SAND. 

White  Tombac.— See  TOMBAC. 

Whitewash. — Slake  the  lime  in  boiling  water,  and 
to  3  gallons  of  whitewash  add  1  pint  of  molasses  and  1 
pint  of  salt,  well  stirred  when  adding  the  ingredients. 
Good  for  fences  and  out-door  buildings.  An  excellent  fire- 
proof whitewash  is  made  by  adding  to  every  5  parts  of 
whitewash  1  part  of  potash.  Soak  glue,  J  pound,  over 
night  in  tepid  water;  on  the  next  day  place  it  in  a  tin 
vessel  with  water  1  quart;  boil,  and  stir  till  the  glue  dis- 
solves. Next  put  7  pounds  Paris  white  (sulphate  of  baryta) 
into  another  vessel,  add  hot  water,  and  stir  until  it  becomes 
milky.  Add  the  sizing,  stir  well,  and  apply  with  a  kalso- 
miner's  fine  brush.  This  is  nearly  equal  to  kalsornine 
made  from  zinc-white.  See  LIME;  ZINC-WHITE. 

Whiting.  —  Chalk  levigated  and  cleaned  from  all 
foreign  substances:  then  made  into  cakes  and  dried.  See 
LIME;  CHALK. 

Whiting  Cupola. — A  patented  cupola  manufactured 
by  the  Detroit  Foundry  Equipment  Company,  Detroit, 
Mich.  Among  many  special  excellences  claimed  for  this 
cupola  are  the  following:  (the  special  features  over  other 
cupolas  are  largely  in  the  arrangement  and  construction  of 
the  patent  tuyeres):  "There  are  two  rows  of  tuyeres. 


Wiixcli.  527  Wind  furnaces. 

The  lower  ones  are  arranged  to  form  what  is  practi- 
cally an  annular  air  inlet,  thus  distributing  the  blast 
almost  continuously  around  the  entire  inner  circumference 
of  the  cupola.  These  tuyeres  are  constructed  in  such  a 
way  that  the  blast  is  admitted  through  the  small  end, 
which  is  expanded  into  a  large  horizontal  opening.  This 
allows  the  blast  to  reach  the  iron  through  an  opening 
nearly  double  the  area  of  that  through  which  it  enters, 
thereby  admitting  the  same  volume  of  blast,  but  soften- 
ing its  force.  The  result  is  a  better,  softer,  and  more 
fluid  iron,  even  in  quality  and  easy  to  work.  A  sharp, 
uneven  blast  destroys  the  best  qualities  of  iron.  The 
cupola  has  an  upper  row  of  smaller  tuyeres  of  similar 
construction,  and  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish  air  to  util- 
ize the  escaping  carbon  gas.  As  we  employ  a  slag-hole, 
the  melting  in  our  cupola  may  be  continued  indefinitely." 

Whitwortli's  Compressed  Steel.— See  PRESS- 
ING-FLUID STEEL. 

Winch. — The  common  winch  for  well  purposes  is 
simply  an  axle  011  which  the  rope  is  wound  by  means  of  a 
crank  at  one  or  both  ends.  For  heavier  purposes,  gearing 
is  employed  in  their  construction,  to  obtain  an  increased 
power.  See  STEAM-WINCH. 

Wind-box. — The  encircling  belt  of  a  cupola  which 
incloses  all  the  tuyeres.  See  CUPOLA. 

Wind-furnaces  are  air-furnaces  which,  instead  of 
being  urged  by  a  blast-machine,  blower,  or  fan,  depend 
on  a  natural  draft,  which  is  usually  induced  by  connecting 
the  flue  with  a  long  chimney,  as  in  brass  and  reverber- 
atory  furnaces.  See  BRASS-FURNACE;  EEVERBERATORY 
FURNACE. 


Wiped  Joint.  528  Wire  Rope. 

Wiped  Joint. — So  called  by  plumbers  when  the  sol- 
der is  left  in  a  mass  around  a  lead  joint  and  smoothed, 
tapering  each  way,  with  a  cloth  pad. 

Wipes.— See  TILT-HAMMER;  TRIP-HAMMER. 

Wire. — In  order  that  a  wire  may  be  drawn,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  metal  should  be  ductile.  Gold,  silver,  steel, 
iron,  copper,  and  their  several  compounds  have  this  prop- 
erty. Iron  is  prepared  by  heating  the  rods  and  re-rolling 
down  to  a  size  suitable  for  the  draw-plate,  consisting  of  an 
oblong  piece  of  hard  steel  pierced  with  conical  holes,  pro- 
gressively smaller  and  smaller.  The  pointed  end  of  the 
metal,  being  passed  through  one  of  them,  is  forcibly  with- 
drawn by  strong  pincers,  or  by  means  of  a  reel  which  con- 
tains the  wire  to  be  drawn,  from  which  it  is  forcibly  un- 
wound by  a  conical  drum  having  a  hook  to  receive  the 
previously  reduced  end  of  the  wire  after  it  has  been  passed 
through  the  draw-plate.  The  drum  is  made  to  revolve  by 
suitable  machinery.  For  some  very  fine  and  accurate  pur- 
poses jewelled  holes  are  prepared  in  the  plates  consisting 
of  rubies  and  similar  hard  stones.  See  TELEGRAPH  AND 
TELEPHONE  WIRE. 

Wire  Cloth. — The  business  is  now  so  well  perfected 
as  to  make  it  a  matter  of  the  least  difficulty  to  obtain  from 
manufacturers  every  conceivable  variety  of  this  fabric. 
They  weave  all  the  grades  of  iron  and  steel  wire  cloths, 
from  the  finest  and  lightest  hardware  grade  to  the  coarsest 
and  heaviest  coal  and  mining  grades;  also,  all  the  different 
kinds  of  brass,  copper,  and  galvanized  cloths  for  any  of  the 
various  purposes  for  which  wire  cloths  are  used. 

Wire  Rope  is  steel  or  iron  wire  twisted  into  ropes. 
When  great  pliability  is  required  it  is  customary  to  make 


Wolfram.  529  Wood-spirit. 

the  centre  of  hemp,  especially  the  smaller-sized  ropes.  A 
reel  should  always  be  used  for  stowing  wire  rope,  and  as  a 
protection  against  rust  the  rope  should  be  occasionally  tarred 
or  painted.  Short  bends  should  be  carefully  avoided; 
and,  while  wire  rope  of  similar  strength  to  hemp  will  run 
on  sheaves  of  the  same  diameter,  it  is  always  preferable  to 
have  larger  ones,  as  the  rope  will  wear  longer.  The  rela- 
tive dimensions  of  hemp  cable  and  of  wire  rope  are  as 
follows,  the  figures  denoting  circumference  in  inches: 

Hemp.... 3,     4,     5,     5$,   6,     6f,   7$,   8,     9,     10,     10*,   11,   12. 
Wire If,   2fc    2f,  3,     3J,   3|,   4,     4|,   4f,     6*.     5f,     6,     6*. 

Wolfram. — Tungstate  of  protoxide  of  iron;  occurs  in 
Cornwall,  in  the  Bohemian  tin-mines,  and  in  Siberia.  Its 
composition  is  tungstic  acid  78.77,  protoxide  of  iron  18.32, 
protoxide  of  manganese  6.22,  silex  1.25.  See  TUNGSTEN. 

Wood-flasks. — See  FLASKS. 

Wood-screw. — A  moulder's  device  for  making  fast  to 
a  pattern,  consisting  of  an  ordinary  screw  connected  by 
welding  to  a  stem,  with  an  eye  turned  and  welded  to  the 
body.  A  small  hole  is  bored,  which  admits  the  screw  with- 
out splitting  the  pattern,  and  the  eye  serves  as  a  handle 
by  which  to  turn  the  screw  and  lift  the  pattern.  See 
SPIKE. 

Wood-spirit. — Wood  naphtha;  is  a  product  of  the 
distillation  of  wood.  Chiefly  used  for  dissolving  the  rosins 
in  making  varnish.  It  is  also  called  methylic  alcohol. 
See  NAPHTHA. 

Wootz-steel.— See  INDIA  CAST  STEEL, 


Worm-geared  Ladle.  530  Yard. 

Worm-geared  Ladle. — A  crane-ladle  geared  with 
an  endless  screw  and  a  spiral  toothed  wheel.  The  screw 
or  worm  being  made  to  turn  in  a  fixing  attached  to  the 
bail,  transmits  motion  to  the  axis  of  the  ladle  by  means 
of  a  spiral  toothed  wheel  keyed  thereon.  See  CRANE- 
LADLES;  LADLES. 

Wrench. — A  tool  having  jaws,  adjustable  or  fixed,  for 
gripping  nuts  or  the  heads  of  bolts,  to  turn  them.  There 
is  a  great  variety  of  these  implements,  but  those  made 
from  a  piece  of  round  twisted  steel,  with  fixed  and  loose 
jaws  and  nut,  are  perhaps  the  best  for  general  purposes, 
especially  in  the  foundry.  The  Acme  Wrench  is  of  this 
description,  and  is  defined  as  follows  : 

1st.  Being  made  of  only  four  pieces  of  steel,  where  other 
wrenches  are  composed  of  from  seven  to  nine  pieces,  the 
wearing  qualities  are  obvious. 

2d.  It  has  no  handle  to  get  loose  or  soak  with  oil. 

3d.  Having  two  slides,  it  is  very  much  stronger. 

4th.  The  thread  in  the  nut  is  about  twice  as  long  as  in 
the  ordinary  wrench ;  consequently  there  will  never  be  the 
same  amount  of  play  in  the  slides,  or  stripping  of  thread. 

5th.  The  jaws  open  one  eighth  wider  than  any  other 
wrench  of  corresponding  size. 

6th.  It  is  steel,  and  the  jaws  are  hardened. 

Written    Impressions    on    Cast    Iron. — See 

HANDWRITING  IMPRESSIONS  ON  CAST  IRON. 

Wrought  Iron.— See  MALLEABLE  IRON. 


Y. 

Yard. — The  standard  measure  of  linear  dimension. 
It  is  subdivided  into  feet  and  inches.  Three  feet  are  con- 
tained in  one  yard,  and  each  foot  =  12  inches. 


Yellow  Brass.  531  Yoke. 

Yellow  Brass. — Bright-yellow  brass  or  Bristol-sheet 
is  composed  of  copper  16,  zinc  6.  Copper  16  and  zinc  5 
is  Dutch  alloy,  which  is  a  deeper  yellow ;  and  a  very  deep 
yellow,  called  pinchbeck,  semilor,  and  bath-metal,  is  com- 
posed of  copper  16,  zinc  4.  Good  yellow-brass  wire  is  cop- 
per 16,  zinc  7;  and  good  ordinary  brass,  bright  yellow,  is 
copper  16,  zinc  8.  Copper  16,  zinc  9  makes  a  full  yellow 
brass,  usually  called  Muntz's  extreme.  Sheathing  is  com- 
posed of  copper  16,  zinc  10;  and  &  paler  yellow  is  copper  16, 
zinc  12,  which  is  a  good  solder  for  copper  or  iron.  Pale- 
yellow  dipping -brass  is  composed  of  copper  16,  zinc  14. 
Yellow  brass  is  made  sensibly  harder  by  adding  from  J  to  |- 
oz.  of  tin,  and  from  J  to  J  oz.  of  lead  increases  its  mallea- 
bility and  makes  it  more  fluid.  These  proportions  are  to 
the  pound  of  mixed  brass. 

Yellow  Dipping-metal. — Copper  32  pounds,  cine 
2  pounds,  soft  solder  2£  ounces.  For  soft-solder  mixture, 
See  SOLDER.  See  DIPPING. 

Yellow  Iron  Pyrites,  or  Sulphuret  of  Iron,  is  brass- 
yellow  in  color;  occurs  crystallized,  capillary,  massive,  dis- 
seminated, and  cellular;  it  is  hard,  brittle,  and  lustrous. 
This  sulphuret  is  often  very  beautiful,  having  crystals, 
resembling  burnished  gold,  from  the  size  of  a  small  grain 
up  to  two  inches  diameter.  Fusible,  with  a  strong  odor  of 
sulphur,  into  a  magnetic  globule.  Composition:  iron  47.85, 
sulphur  52,15;  specific  gravity  4.8.  See  SULPHUR. 

Yielding-platen     Moulding-machine.  —  See 

MOULDING-MACHINES. 

Yoke. — A  name  in  some  localities  for  the  bail  of  a 
crane-ladle.  See  BAIL. 


yttrium.  532  Zinc. 

Yttrium. — This  metal  was  discovered  by  Wohler  in 
1828.  It  is  a  very  rare  metal,  dark  gray  in  color,  and  very 
brittle.  See  METALS. 


Z. 

Zinc. — A  brilliant  bluish-white  metal,  found  in  nature 
in  combination  with  sulphur  as  zinc  blende,  and  with 
oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  as  calamine.  Great  quantities 
of  red  oxide  are  found  in  New  Jersey.  It  is  a  brittle  metal 
at  common  temperatures,  but  when  heated  from  212°  to 
300°  it  may  be  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets,  and  retains  its 
malleability  when  cold.  It  again  becomes  brittle  at  400°, 
and  melts  at  741°;  taking  fire  if  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
emitting  a  whitish-green  flame  as  it  burns,  forming  the 
oxide  of  zinc.  This  metal  tarnishes  readily  in  a  moist 
atmosphere,  and  forms  a  film  of  oxide  which  resists  further 
change.  This  property  is  what  makes  this  metal  so  valu- 
able for  gas-pipes,  roofing,  and  for  galvanizing  iron.  It 
prevents  oxidation  of  the  metals  on  which  it  is  applied.  See 
GALVANIZED  IKON. 

The  native  carbonate,  or  calamine,  is  the  most  valuable 
of  the  zinc  ores.  It  is  first  roasted  to  expel  water  and 
carbonic  acid,  then  mixed  with  fragments  of  coke  or  char- 
coal, and  distilled  at  a  full  red  heat  in  an  earthen  retort; 
carbonic  acid  escapes,  while  the  reduced  metal  volatilizes, 
and  is  condensed,  generally  mixed  with  minute  portions  of 
arsenic. 

When  zinc  forms  a  component  part  of  any  alloy,  a  better 
mixture  is  obtained  by  melting  the  zinc  separately,  and 
pouring  it  into  a  ladle  containing  the  melted  copper, 
through  a  hole  in  the  cover.  This  is  done  to  prevent 
the  rapid  oxidation  of  the  zinc;  for  if  this  is  done 
without  excluding  the  air,  the  zinc  volatilizes  very 
quickly  and  with  violence,  throwing  off  vapors  which  burn 


Zinc-coating.  533  Zinc  coating. 

and  produce  an  immense  quantity  of  oxide,  which  falls 
down  in  flakes. 

When  zinc  is  not  more  than  from  35  to  40  per  cent  of  a 
mixture  with  copper,  the  alloy  retains  its  malleability  and 
ductility.  Beyond  this  proportion  it  assumes  the  crystalline 
state,  until  at  zinc  2,  copper  1  the  alloy  may  be  crumbled 
in  a  mortar. 

Bronze  alloys  are  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
proportion  of  zinc :  their  malleability  is  increased,  with  little 
or  no  diminution  in  the  hardness;  besides  which  it  assists 
materially  in  the  mixing. 

It  is  certain  that  zinc  and  copper  alloys  form  a  more 
perfect  chemical  union  than  the  alloys  of  lead  with  cop- 
per or  tin  with  copper. 

Zinc  is  caused  to  combine  with  lead  by  the  admixture  of 
a  third  alloy,  arsenic ;  but,  like  other  alloys  with  arsenic,  it 
becomes  very  brittle,  and  almost  useless. 

Zinc  combines  with  tin  to  form  a  hard  brittle  alloy,  not 
of  much  use  commercially. 

Old  zinc  plate,  etc.,  assumes  the  crystalline  state  again 
when  remelted. 

A  small  proportion  of  zinc  will  render  gold  brittle;  zinc 
vapors  alone  sensibly  affect  gold  in  fusion.  Gold  10,  zinc 
1  makes  a  brittle  alloy,  the  color  of  brass ;  and  gold  10, 
zinc  5  makes  a  white,  hard  alloy,  susceptible  of  a  high 
degree  of  polish. 

Very  few  of  the  zinc  alloys,  except  those  with  copper  to 
form  brass  alloys,  are  of  much  service ;  and  the  maximum 
of  strength  in  the  latter  is  obtained  when  the  alloy  contains 
about  44  per  cent  of  zinc.  See  COPPER;  FCXNTAINE- 
MOREAU'S  BRONZES. 

Zinc-coating. — Copper  and  brass  articles  may  be 
permanently  coated  with  a  layer  of  pure  zinc  by  boiling 


Zinc,  Reducing  the  Oxide  of.         5  34  Zinc,  To  Purify. 

them  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  with  an  excess  of 
zinc-turnings  present  in  the  solution. 

Gray-iron  'castings  may  be  coated  or  galvanized  by  first 
cleaning  them  by  abrasion  with  sand  in  a  tumbling-barrel, 
then  heating  and  plunging  them  separately,  while  hot,  in 
a  liquid  composed  of  hydrochloric  acid  10  Ibs.,  and  suf- 
ficient sheet  lead  to  make  a  saturated  solution.  In  making 
this  solution,  add  sulphate  of  ammonia  1  lb.,  when  the 
evolution  of  gas  has  ceased.  If  the  castings  are  hot  enough 
after  dipping  them  in  this  solution  they  will  dry  almost  in- 
stantly, leaving  a  crystallized  surface  of  zinc.  They  must 
now  be  placed  in  a  bath  of  melted  zinc  over  which,  after 
skimming,  some  powdered  sal-ammoniac  has  been  thrown 
to  prevent  further  oxidation.  Small  articles  can  be 
lowered  into  the  bath  in  a  wire  basket,  lifted  out,  the 
superfluous  metal  shaken  off,  and  then  cast  into  water. 

Zinc-plating. — See  GALVANIZED  IRON. 

Zinc,  Reducing  the  Oxide  of. — Have  a  large  pot 
that  will  hold  about  five  hundred  pounds  of  the  oxide; 
place  it  over  the  fire  and  fill  it  with  the  dross,  etc.;  then 
pour  sufficient  muriatic  acid  over  the  top  to  act  as  a  flux. 
The  action  of  the  fire  will  melt  the  dross,  and  the  pure 
metal  will  fall  to  the  bottom. 

Zinc,  To  Purify. — Granulate  zinc  by  melting,  and 
while  very  hot,  pouring  it  into  a  deep  vessel  filled  with 
water.  Put  the  granulated  zinc  in  alternate  layers  with 
one  fourth  its  weight  of  .nitre  in  a  Hessian  crucible,  and 
with  an  excess  of  nitre  on  the  top.  The  crucible  must  be 
covered  and  the  lid  secured ;  then  apply  the  heat.  When 
deflagration  takes  place  the  crucible  can  be  taken  out,  the 
metal  freed  from  slag,  and  poured.  Zinc  treated  thus  is 
freed  from  arsenic  and  other  impurities. 


Zinc  white.  535  Zinc-white. 

Zinc-white,  or  zincic  oxide,  is  a  strong  base,  forming 
salts  isomorphous  with  the  magnesian  salts.  It  is  prepared 
either  by  burning  zinc  in  atmospheric  air  or  by  heating  the 
carbonate  to  redness.  Under  the  name  of  zinc-white  it  is 
frequently  substituted  for  white  lead  as  a  pigment  for 
paints.  It  is  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  volatilizing 
metallic  zinc  in  earthen  muffles,  the  vapor  from  thence 
passing  into  a  receiver,  where,  coming  in  contact  with  a 
current  of  air,  it  is  oxidized.  The  oxide,  being  a  light 
woolly  substance,  is  carried  along  tubes  to  the  condensing- 
chamber,  where  it  falls  as  a  fine  powder,  or  zinc-white. 


